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UNIT 1 FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
UNIT 2 MARKETING FUNCTIONS
UNIT 3 WATER CYCLE
UNIT 4 WATER POLUTION
UNIT 5 WATER CONSERVATION
UNIT 6 SOIL FERTILITY
UNIT 7 SOIL STRUCTURE
UNIT 8 SOIL PROFILE
UNIT 9 SOIL EROSION AND SOIL CONSERVATION
UNIT 10 FARM MACHINERY AND THEIR USES
UNIT 11 SAFETY MEASURES WHEN USING FARM MACHINERY
UNIT 12 MAINTENANCE OF FARM MACHINERY
UNIT 13 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF FLOWERS
UNIT 14 FLOWER NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT
UNIT 15 SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION FOR FLOWER PRODUCTION
UNIT 16 TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS UNIT 17 MANURE AND FERTILIZER APPLICATION IN FLOWERS
UNIT 18 WEED CONTROL IN FLOWERS UNIT 19 TENDING FLOWERS
UNIT 20 PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL IN FLOWERS
UNIT 21 HARVESTING FLOWERS
UNIT 22 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES
UNIT 23 NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT FOR LEAF VEGETABLES
UNIT 24 SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION FOR GROWING LEAF VEGETABLES
UNIT 25 TRANSPLANTING LEAF VEGETABLES
UNIT 26 FIELD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR LEAF VEGETABLES
UNIT 27 IMPORTANCE OF RABBITS
UNIT 28 HOUSING AND FEEDING RABBITS
UNIT 29 DISEASE AND PARASITE CONTROL IN RABBITS
UNIT 30 IMPORTANCE AND SYSTEMS OF AGROFORESTRY

UNIT 1 FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
Factors of production are the resources that are used to produce crops and livestock.

MAJOR FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

land
labour
capital
management

Land

This is where most of the farming activities take place.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND THAT AFFECT AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

Size
Fertility
Slope

Size:

If a farmer cultivates a big area, the total yield will be more than from a tiny land.

Fertility:

A fertile land has enough nutrients, air and moisture for crop growth. Such land will yield more crops.

Slope:

Land with a gentle slope maintains its top soil because it is not easily eroded. Such land supports plant growth.

Labour
This is the effort of people in doing farm operations or work done by people.

Capital
This refers to materials available on the farm for production.
Capital items are cash, farm inputs, equipment, tools, buildings and livestock.

Management
This refers to the farmer's knowledge and skills in performing farm operations.

Farm management involves:

planning the farm work
controlling the use of land, labour and capital
supervising the work
making farming decisions
budgeting for farm activities
organizing the land, labour and capital

UNIT 2 MARKETING FUNCTIONS

Marketing functions are activities conducted by producers or intermediate buyers in order to make profit and satisfy the needs of customers.

MARKETING FUNCTIONS
Marketing does not only involve buying and selling. Marketing involves many activities.
These include:

buying
selling
processing
grading
packaging
advertising
storage
transporting
market research

Buying

This means paying for goods to own them.

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN BUYING

determining needed goods
identifying where to obtain the goods
choosing desired goods
bargaining
paying for goods
collecting the goods for use

IMPORTANCE OF BUYING

the buyer becomes the owner of the goods in order to use them when needed.

Selling
ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN SELLING

deciding where to sell
displaying products to attract customers
pricing products
issuing or offering the produce to the customer
collecting payment

IMPORTANCE OF SELLING

It enables the farmer to obtain a reasonable income which can be used to buy inputs for the farm business or to satisfy personal needs.

Processing

Processing means changing the raw materials into finished products. Processing increases the value and usefulness of agricultural products.

Agricultural raw materials and their processed products

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN PROCESSING
ª grinding
ª pounding (milling)
ª cleaning
ª shelling
ª boiling
ª sieving

ª winnowing
ª drying
ª slicing
ª salting

Transporting

This involves carrying the agricultural produce to the market.

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTING GOODS TO THE MARKET

Goods are made readily available to customers.
The farmer can also easily sell the produce at a better price since many customers at the market will compete to buy the produce.

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN TRANSPORTING

assembling
identifying mode of transport

Market research

This involves finding out prices of various products in different markets.

IMPORTANCE OF MARKET RESEARCH

Market research helps the farmer in deciding what to produce and where to sell it.

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN MARKET RESEARCH

interviewing people
recording responses
interpreting information

Grading

This involves sorting out produce to ensure uniformity in quality.

Different types of agricultural produce are graded differently depending on certain factors.

FACTORS FOR GRADING

size
shape

colour
tenderness
taste
age
weight

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN GRADING

sorting
weighing

IMPORTANCE OF GRADING

it helps in pricing the produce
it enables the farmer to get more money for produce of high grade
it encourages the farmer to aim at producing quality products.

Packaging

This involves placing the produce into appropriate containers.

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN PACKAGING

wrapping
sealing
labelling
weighing

IMPORTANCE OF PACKAGING

it makes pricing the produce easy
it makes it easy for customers to choose produce in quantities suitable for their needs
it makes it easy for customers to carry produce in quantities suitable for their needs

Storage

This involves keeping the produce in a safe place

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN STORAGE

application of chemicals
cleaning storage facility
stocking

IMPORTANCE OF STORAGE

it preserves the quality of the produce
it makes the product available when customers need it most
it helps the farmer to sell at a better price to increase profit

Advertising

This involves telling people about a product, letting the customers know why it may be best for them to buy it.

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN ADVERTISING

displaying
attractive wrapping
labelling

IMPORTANCE OF ADVERTISING

it helps in increasing sales

UNIT 3 WATER CYCLE

MEANING OF THE TERM ‘WATER CYCLE’
Water cycle is the continuous movement of water on above and below the surface of the earth in different forms.

or
Water cycle is the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth in different forms.

These forms can be liquid, gas or solid.
Since it is a cycle, there is no beginning or ending.

PROCESSES AND STAGES OF WATER CYCLE
Some of the processes and stages are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, surface run-off and infiltration.

Evaporation

Evaporation is the loss of water from soil and water bodies into the atmosphere in form of vapour.

Transpiration

Transpiration is the loss of water from plant leaves into the atmosphere through plant openings in form of vapour.
The combination of evaporation and transpiration is called Evapotranspiration.

Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is the loss of water from the soil, oceans, lakes, rivers and plants into the atmosphere as vapour.

Condensation

Condensation is the process by which water vapour in the atmosphere is changed into droplets. When there is an accumulation of water droplets clouds are formed.

Precipitation

Precipitation is the falling of water from the atmosphere to the earth in form of rain and hail. Precipitation is also called rainfall.

Surface run-off

Surface run-off is the water that flows on the soil surface following the slope of the land.

Infiltration

Infiltration is the entry of water into the soil.

Percolation

Percolation is the moving deeper of water in the soil increasing the amount of ground water.

Ground water

Ground water refers to large amounts of water stored below the earth's land surface.

Open water bodies

Open water bodies refers to water existing on the land surface such as rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans and dams.

UNIT 4 WATER POLLUTION
Pollution is the contamination of the environment with harmful and poisonous substances arising from human activities.

CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

disposal of human wastes
constructing pit latrines close to water bodies
disposal of domestic, industrial and hospital wastes into water bodies
siltation of water bodies
use of poisonous herbs and chemicals when catching fish
application of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides to crops in the field which are then eroded together with soil into nearest water bodies

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

reduced work done by the farmer
death of plants
death of livestock
blocking irrigation pipes
shortage of water for irrigation

FUTURE’S WHEELS SHOWING CONSEQUENCIES OF WATER POLUTION

WAYS OF CONTROLLING WATERPOLLUTION

building proper and well located pit latrines
using recommended chemicals in proper amounts for agricultural activities
avoid urinating, defecating, bathing washing clothes and dishes in water which is used for drinking, animal production and irrigation
avoid damping kitchen, industrial and hospital wastes in water bodies
protecting wells and boreholes by fencing them and cementing the floor
provide ground cover to prevent siltation

WAYS OF KEEPING WATER SAFE

boiling
adding chemicals such as chlorine and water guard
filtering
protecting boreholes and wells
siting pit latrines away from water sources

UNIT 5 WATER CONSERVATION

Water conservation refers to the ways of reducing water loss from soil allowing more water to infiltrate in the soil and collecting surface run-off for future use.

WAYS OF CONSERVING WATER

use of vegetative cover
application of organic matter
mulching
use of contour ridges, bands and box ridges
constructing dams
removing silt and other material that accumulate in water bodies
making ridges across the slope
maintaining vegetative cover along river bank
water harvesting

UNIT 6 SOIL TEXTURE
Soil texture is the coarseness or fineness of the soil.
or
Soil texture is the percentage of sand, silt and clay in a soil.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS BASED ON TEXTURE
There are three main classes of soil based on texture. These are sand, clay and loam soils.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSES OF SOIL

Class of soil	Characteristics
Sand	large particles feels coarse large air spaces holds little water little amount of nutrients easiest to till and ridge
Loam	medium particle feels fine and soft medium air spaces holds moderate amount of water holds medium amount of nutrients easier to till and ridge
Clay	small particle size feels sticky when wet small air spaces holds a lot of water contains high amount of nutrients difficult to till

SOME CROPS SUITABLE FOR DIFFERENT SOIL CLASSES

Class of soil	suitable crops
Sand	cassava, groundnuts, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes
loam	maize, groundnuts, beans, peas, pigeon peas, tobacco, okra, Irish potatoes, soya beans
clay	rice, sugarcane, cotton

UNIT 7 SOIL STRUCTURE

Soil structure is how soil particles are held together.
or
Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles to form different shapes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT SOIL STRUCTURES
There are different types of soil structures. Some of these soil structures are loose, crumb and compact.

Loose structure

the individual soil particles are lightly held together
it has large pore spaces between the particles
it loss water quickly
it is very easy to break

Crumb structure

the individual soil particles are moderately held together
it has medium pore spaces between the particles
it breaks quickly
it holds moderate amount of water

Compact structure

the individual soil particles are strongly held together
it has very mall pore spaces between the particles
it loss water quickly
it is difficult to break
it holds high amount of water

UNIT 8 SOIL PROFILE

Soil profile refers to the vertical section through the soil showing horizontal layer.

Most soils have four main layers.
These are top soil, sub soil, weathered rock and parent rock.

LAYERS OF SOIL AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Top soil

This is upper layer of soil profile.
Most living organisms are found in this layer.
This layer has a high organic matter content.
This gives the layer its dark brown or black colour, better aeration and high nutrient content.

Sub-soil

This layer lies below the top soil.
There is less organic matter or humus.
This layer has a lighter colour than top soil.
The colour may be red or reddish brown.
The layer contains some nutrients washed down from top soil.

The washing down of nutrients from top soil to the sub soil is called leaching. Roots of most crops do not reach this layer.
Generally, the sub soil is less fertile than top soil.
However, some deep rooted crops such as trees may penetrate this layer.

Weathered rock

This layer lies below the sub-soil. It contains gravel, broken rocks.
The colour of this layer varies.
It depends on the mineral composition of the rock and penetrate this layer.

Parent rock

This is a rock which has not been broken down to form soil.
It is also called a bed rock.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TOP SOIL THAT PROMOTE CROP PRODUCTION

Characteristics	Importance for crop production
high nutrient content	supplying adequate amount of plant food for growth
better aeration	supply air (oxygen) needed for seed germination and root respiration
better water retention	supply adequate water for seed germination and plant growth
black colour	it helps the soil to absorb heat which provide warmth necessary for seed germination and seedling development
high humus content	humus improves soil aeration, water retention and nutrient content of the soil
presence of soil organisms	these help to improve soil aeration like earth worms

UNIT 9 SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION
Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by the action of water and wind.

CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

careless cutting down of tree
cultivating on steep slopes
cultivating along river banks
making ridges along the slope

EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

loss of fertile soil resulting into low yields
reduced amount of ground water as a result of fast moving water which reduces infiltration
silting of rivers, streams, dams and lakes reducing the amount water bodies and destroying aquatic life
formation of gullies leading to reduction of land for cultivation
exposure of plant roots causing lodging of crops

SOIL CONSERVATION

avoiding overstocking
making terraces on steep land
mulching
correct spacing of crops

strip cropping
making ridges across the slope
making box ridges
making contour bands

TERRACES ON STEEP SLOPE
Making terraces on steep slopes. This conserves soil by reducing the speed of running water.

MULCHING
Mulching material reduces the speed of running water which can carry soil away.

STRIP CROPPING
Strip cropping involves alternating strips of poor cover crops (maize) with good cover crops (groundnuts) across the slope.
The soil that has been eroded by poor cover crops is trapped by good cover crops.

RIDGES ACROSS THE SLOPE
Making ridges across the slopes reduces speed of run-off

BOX RIDGES
Making box ridges reduces amount of run-off by holding water in the boxes.

CONTOUR BANDS
Making contour bands holds water and reduces amount of run-off thereby controlling erosion.

UNIT 10 FARM MACHINERY AND THEIR USES

FARM MACHINERY AND THEIR PARTS

There are different machinery that farmers use. These include ploughs, ridgers and sprayers.

USES OF FARM MACHINERY

MACHINERY	USES
plough	tilling the soil
ridger	making ridges
sprayer	applying chemicals to crop and animals to control pests, parasites and diseases.

PARTS OF A RIDGER

PARTS OF A PLOUGH

PARTS OF A SPRAYER

Control tap

USES OF PARTS OF PLOUGH AND A RIDGER

PARTS	USES
handles	enable the farmer to hold and guide plough and ridger
beam	holds all parts of a plough or a ridger
share	Cuts the soil into thin layer
hake	sets the depth of ploughing
depth wheel	helps to move the plough or ridger and maintains depth
hitch	attaches the plough or ridger to the chain or axle
mould board	throws the soil cut loose by share to one side and turns it over (for plough)
wings (for ridger)	pushes the soil to each side so that on the return run a complete ridge is made during ridging

USES OF PARTS OF A SPRAYER

PARTS	USES
plastic container	holds the spray materials
plain pump barrel	creates pressure which forces the spray to come out through the lance
lance	delivers the spray
nozzle	a hole through which the spray comes out
control tap	helps to control the amount of spray that comes out
sieve	filtering the spray to avoid blocking the nozzle
shoulder strap	for holding the sprayer
nozzle cups	holds nozzle disc in position

UNIT 11 SAFETY MEASURES WHEN USING FARM MACHINERY

SAFETY MEASURES WHEN USING PLOUGHS AND RIDGER

Ensure that the machine is in good working order
Soil must be fairly moist when either ploughing or ridging
There must be no stumps or large stones in the field during ploughing or ridging
The plough or ridger must be handled firmly and correctly
The nuts and bolts must be tight
Oxen used to pull the plough or ridger must be well trained
The yoke must be tied to the plough property

SAFETY MEASURES WHEN USING SPRAYER

keep the control tap tight.
avoid sucking or blowing through the nozzles to prevent chemical poisoning
always wear protective clothes when spraying
face away from the wind side when spraying so that chemicals are not blown into the face.
do not eat, drink or smoke while spraying.
the sprayer must be thoroughly cleaned after use
wash your body with soup after spraying
chemicals from the sprayer must be properly disposed of to avoid pollution of air, soil and water.

UNIT 12 MAINTENANCE OF FARM MACHINERY

MAINTENANCE OF A RIDGER, A PLOUGH OR SPRAYER
Remember the following points or rules when caring for a ridger, plough and sprayer:
J know the parts and how they work or function
J set the machine correctly for it to perform properly
J clean the machines and dry them immediately after use to prevent rusting
J grease all movable parts to prevent friction between them
J tighten nuts and bolts to prevent spoiling the threads on the nuts and bolts
J replace warn out parts such as the share, mould boards, nozzle and handle.
J transport a plough or a ridger properly in an ox-cart or by tying the handles to the york and pulling it on the depth wheel in reverse position.
J paint the machinery at the end of each growing season
J keep plough, ridger or sprayer in dry store room or shed for safety
J use the machine for purposes it was made
J read the accompanying manual if available
J lift up or lay down the machinery after use and avoid throwing them away anyhow

UNIT 13 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF FLOWERS

TYPES OF FLOWERS
There are different types of flowers based on how they grow.

creepers or climbers

These flowers have stems which need support because the stems are weak and grow along the ground. The flowers look beautiful when supported by a wall, strings, trees and fences. Examples of the creepers are money plant, and bougainvillea.

ground covers

These flowers have stems which do not grow tall. The stems do not need support. The flowers produce many side branches and cover the ground. Examples of such flowers are geranium, periwinkle, marigolds, zinnia, dahlia and ferns.

trees

These flowers have stems that grow very big and tall. The stems are also tough. The trees are grown because they produce beautiful shape, fruits, petals and leaves. Examples of such flowers are jacaranda, acacia and conifers.

shrubs

These have stems which are thick and tough after first year of growth. They produce many branches which can be trimmed to a variety of shapes. Examples of such flowers are hibiscus, roses, fushsia, and poinselta.

IMPORTANCE OF FLOWERS
J They decorate the surrounding
J Source of income
J Source of medicine
J Source of raw material
J Provide protection
J Some flowers are grown to scare away harmful pests and other animals such as marigold and night queen.

UNIT 14 FLOWER NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT

ESTABLISHMENT OF FLOWER NURSERIES
Establishment a flower nursery involves site selection, land preparation, planting or sowing, weeding, pest and disease control and hardening off.

Site selection

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A SITE FOR A FLOWER NURSERY

Should be close to water supply for easy watering
Should be close to home or office or fenced area for protection
Loam soil for good drainage

Land preparation
Land preparation involves the following:

clearing the land
constructing a fence
preparation of planting materials

Preparing nursery bed
Preparation nursery bed for cuttings

till the cleared site to break to break the hard subsoil so that water drains freely
level the tilled land to make the plate flat
mark the bed 1 metre wide 5 centimetre high using bricks, soil or wood so as to create a basin for easy watering
fill the marked are with 15 centimetre depth of river sand for free drainage for easy rooting
cover the top of the prepared bed with a clear plastic paper. This will protect the bed from direct sun heat, too much water from rains and will produce heat that will make buds of cuttings to open quickly

Preparation of nursery bed for seeds

small seeds can be established in trays with holes at the bottom, large seeds can be sown in the pots filled with soil
prepare soil to fill trays or pots by mixing top soil rich in manure, sand and madeya or sawdust, rice husks in the ratio 2:1:1
arrange the trays or planting pots on levelled land to form a 1 metre wide bed
fill the container with the soil

Planting
Planting cutting

select planting materials from fresh clean stems to prevent carryover of pests and diseases
make a 15cm long cutting by making the base flat and making the cut close to a node in order to easily identify the side to place in soil
cut the top of the cutting in a slanting manner to allow water to drain away
remove leaves from the cutting except 2 leaves at the top of the cutting for fast growth

water the planting bed adequately
plant cuttings 7.5 cm deep and the correct way up and in a slanting manner
avoid excessive watering to prevent damping off and leaching

Planting large seeds

make a hole in the potted soil
place the large seed in the holes
water the pots adequately

Planting small seeds

make a drill in planting trays
sow small seeds in the drill thinly
cover lightly with soil
cover the trays with grass
water the planted trays

MANAGING A FLOWER NURSERY
The activities involves in managing flower nursery include watering, weeding, controlling pests and diseases and hardening off.

watering should be done twice a day early in the morning and late in the evening
weed by uprooting
pests and diseases should be controlled using appropriate measures
hardening off – before transplanting seedlings reduce frequency of watering so that seedlings withstand field conditions

UNIT 15 SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION FOR FLOWER PRODUCTION

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING SITE FOR GROWING FROWERS

type of flower
height of flower
colour of flower
colour of surroundings

LAND CHARACTERISTICS

slope of the land – make use of land characteristics. For instance, on steep land plant ground covers or make terraces for planting flowers, on rocks make a rock garden

site of the bed – the site of the flower bed will affect the size and type of flower.

If flowers are to be planted between gutter and wall, it may be a narrow bed and choose rooted flowers to avoid damaging the structure.

LAND PREPARATION
When preparing land follow the following steps:

choose the site for flower garden
mark the bed according to the desired size and shape
lay out the bed according to design
dig the marked area to a depth equal to root depth of flowers DEPTH OF HOLE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLOWERS

TYPES OF FROWER	DEPTH OF HOLE
shrubs	30 cm deep
ground cover	7.5 - 15cm deep
trees	90cm deep

cover the planting hole with the top soil first, then subsoil mixed with well decomposed manure

UNIT 16 TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS.

STEPS FOR TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS INTO FLOWER POTS

Watering the plants 3 – 4 hours before transplanting so that roots, stems and leaves are full of water as well as the soil around the roots.
preparing soil for pot filling
filling soil in flower pots
making a planting hole
lifting the seedlings with a hand trowel without damaging the roots
place the lifted seedlings into the hole made in the planting pot without bending the roots.
cover the transplanted seedlings up to the collar neck
press the soil around the seedlings to make seedlings stand firm
place the potted plants under shed when it is hot season
water the transplanted plants.

STEPS FOLLOWED WHEN TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS TO FIELD BEDS

water the field bed hole 3 – 4 hours before transplanting
dig a planting hole

place the pot in the hole

remove the planting pot by tearing on the side, this is to allow free growth of stem and roots later, circulation of air and water
cover the plant with soil to the collar neck
press the soil around the plant to make seedling stand firm
water the transplanted seedlings
mulch the seedling to protect from excess sunlight
water the plant every 4 days until it get established

Transplanting should be done on a cool day or early in the morning or late in the afternoon to reduce loss of water from the seedlings.

UNIT 17 MANURE AND FERTILISER APPLICATION IN FLOWERS
FERTILISER AND MANURE APPLICATION TO FLOWERS
Fertilizers and manure are applied to flowers to encourage growth.
Different types of manure are applied such as compost manure and animal manure. Well decomposed manure should be applied.
The manure can be mixed with soil before transplanting.
When the flowers are well established, the manure can be spread (broadcasted) in the flower beds. Where the flowers are planted in the rows sparsely planted, the manure can be applied in grooves. The common fertilizers applied in the flowers are 23:21:0+4S and CAN.
The fertilizers are applied using dollop method, banding method and broadcasting method depending on how flowers are planted.
Apply 23:21:0+4S soon after transplanting. When flowers are well established apply CAN.

UNIT 18 WEED CONTROL IN FLOWERS

COMMON WEEDS IN FLOWER GARDENS
Some of the weeds in flower gardens are star grass, datura, oxalis, chisoso, Tridax, galisoga. A flower garden has to be free from weeds for it to be beautiful.

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL IN FLOWER GARDENS
In a flower garden, weeds can be controlled using the following methods:

light hoeing
hand weeding
slashing
chemical weeding

GUIDELINES WHEN WEEDING FLOWER BEDS

ensure that weeds are well controlled
avoid destroying the flower plants
ensure the garden is left neat

WHEN TO USE DIFFERENT METHODS OF WEEDING

METHODS	WHEN
hand weeding	when weeds are very close to plant when flower plants are closely spaced
light hoeing	when space between flowers allows use of a hoe without damaging the flower
slashing	when flowers are widely spaced
chemical weeding	when controlling weed before they emerge killing the weeds using selective herbicides

UNIT 19 TENDING FLOWERS

MEANING OF THINNING
Thinning is the removal of excess plants on a flower bed or field.

REASONS FOR THINNING

to reduce competition between plants and nutrients, air, water, space and sunshine.
to ensure healthy growth of the flower
to maintain beauty of the flowers

PROCEDURES FOR THINNING

water the flower beds to make the soil moist
uproot the weak, diseased or any excess plants leaving the correct number per station

MEANING OF PRUNING
Pruning is the removal of unwanted parts of a flower plant such as dead, old, excess and diseased branches, leaves and flowers.

REASONS FOR PRUNING

to improve quality of the flowers
to maintain plant health
to restrict growth
to train the plants

PROCEDUCE FOR PRUNING FLOWER

remove dead, old and diseased leaves
remove dead heads and fading flowers
remove branches which are dead, trailing, diseased, excess and off shape by cutting them from the bottom upward to avoid tearing the flower plant. The cutting should be done at an angle to facilitate water drainage

MEANING OF TRIMMING
Trimming is the cutting back of flower branches.

REASONS FOR TRIMMING

to make a desirable shape
to make flower plants become less bushy
to restrict growth

PROCEDURE FOR TRIMMING

measure the desirable height and mark
cut back the branches to the intended height
cut the branches to the desirable shape

UNIT 20 PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL IN FLOWERS

PESTS AND DISEASES OF FLOWERS

PESTS OF FLOWER

Mealy bugs
These are found on undersides and axils of leaves and young shoots. They produce a sticky substance called honeydew on which grows a black mould. They live by sucking plant juices. They can be controlled by using clean planting materials.

Aphids
These cause twisting of leaves and flowers. They also produce sticky substances called honeydew that attracts ants. They can be controlled by using dimethoate or marathion, hot pepper and garlic.

Scaley insects
They are identified as bumps on stems and undersides of leaves where they produce substance called honeydew resulting in stunted growth. They live by sucking plant juices. They can be controlled by Marathion or Noadazinon.

White flies
They are found on undersides of the leaves and produce sticky substance called honeydew where a black mould can develop. They live by sucking plant juices. They can be controlled by clean planting materials.

Spider mites
These are found on the undersides of the leaves. They suck plant juices. They can be controlled by interplanting with strong smelling plants like marigold and using Dimethoate, Actellic and Rogor.

Slugs or Snails
They are found around dark, moist, decaying matter. They eat leaves. They can be controlled by hand picking or use of sodium bicarbonate and common salt.

DISEASES OF FLOWERS Grey mould

This is caused by fungus.
It affects leaves, flowers and roots.
It can be controlled by cutting away the dead rotting part and burn it
It can also be controlled by fungicides

Beech bark disease

It is caused by fungus spread by scale insect
It affects the bark and penetrates inwards until the tree dies
It can be controlled by felling the infected tree to minimise the spread of disease

Giant polypore fungus

This disease is caused by fungus
It usually affects mature or over-mature trees
It attacks the roots
It can be controlled by cutting down the tree and burn it

UNIT 21 HARVESTING FLOWERS

There are three products that can be harvested from flowers and shrubs. These are:

true seeds
cuttings
real flowers (cut flower)

PROCEDURE
The best stage to harvest or cut flowers for sale depends on the types of flowers. Generally, flowers must be harvested just before or as soon as they reach maturity. The bud should not be completely open.
Cut the flowers during the cool morning hours. At that time dew should dried.

Use a pair of scissors, garden share, secuture and knives to cut the flower. These materials should be kept sharp to ensure that stems are cut evenly and not crushed. Crushed stems restrict the ability of the flowers to take up water thereby reducing their life.

PRESERVING FLOWERS

Air drying

Flowers are cut at uniform length and hang upside down in branches in a dark, dry room to prevent fading of colour through sunlight

Pressing

Flowers are pressed between newspapers. Alternating layers of flowers and paper are pressed between two boards. A heavy object is then placed on the top board. The pressed flowers are usually stored in the stuck until needed.

Dipping in a mixture of water and glycerine

Flowers are dipped in a solution of water and glycerine for two to three weeks.
Freshly harvested flowers should be placed in lukewarm water that has floral preservatives. The preservatives increase flower's life.

Drying in silica gel

Silica gel absorbs moisture from flowers. Flowers are placed in a closed container with silica gel. It is recommended that flowers dried in this way should be stored and displayed in the closed containers to keep out moisture.

UNIT 22 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES

TYPES OF VEGETABLES
There are two main types of vegetables. These are indigenous and exotic

Indigenous vegetables
These are vegetables found naturally in a country for example Malawi.
These include chisoso, mwanaaligone, luni, bonongwe, limanda, thugwi, chewe, bowa and njerenjedza.

Exotic vegetables
These are vegetables introduced in a country from elsewhere.

These include cabbage, rape, carrot, tomato, bowa and eggplant.

CLASSES OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables can be classified according to edible parts. The following are the classes of vegetables:
Leaf vegetables
Cabbage, mustard, bonongwe, rape and spinach.

Root, tuber and bulb vegetables
Carrot, European potatoes, onion, sweet potatoes and beetroot.

Fruit vegetables
Tomatoes, eggplants, pepper, pumpkins, cucumbers.

Legume vegetables
Peas and fresh beans, fresh cowpeas

For some vegetables the whole plant is eaten such as mushroom.

IMPOTANCE OF VEGETABLES

sources of food
sources of income
sources of employment
sources of raw materials

UNIT 23 NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT FOR VEGETABLES NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT
Some of the activities involved in vegetable nursery establishment are site selection, seed selection, seed bed preparation and sowing.

SITE SELECTON
A vegetable nursery should be near a water source near the home or school for easy management and on sandy loam soil for easy drainage

SEED SELECTION
It is important to select good seed for sowing to ensure high germination percentages and health strong seedlings.
Seed can be selected from previous crop or bought.
Check the expiry date to avoid buying seeds which have overstayed as this will lead to low germination percentage.

NURSERY BED PREPARATION
After selecting site for a vegetable, it must be fenced.
The land must be tilled to a depth of more than 15cm to loosen the soil and improve the drainage. The bed should be 1 metre wide and 15 cm high.
A bed can be of any length.
The bed must be flat to avoid run-off.
Make a mixture of two parts of loam soil, one part manure and one part sand. Spread the mixture over the bed to a depth of 15 cm.

SOWING SEEDS
Large vegetable seeds as those of pumpkins, peas and beans can be sown directly on the field beds.
Small seeds should be sown in furrows (drills) 1.5 cm deep and 10-20cm apart along the width of the seedbed in straight lines for easy management and extraction.
Spread the seeds thinly in the furrows and cover lightly with soil. Erect a raised mulch which will also serve as a temporary shade.

NURSERY MANAGEMENT
Vegetable nursery management involves a number of activities.
These activities include watering, weeding, thinning, pest and disease control and hardening off.

Watering
Water seedbeds in the morning and late in the afternoon everyday until the seedlings are four weeks old.
Avoid watering at midday when evaporation is highest.

Avoid under-watering because it will result into wilting.

Weeding
Weeding is necessary to reduce competition between weeds and seedlings for nutrients, water, light and space.
It also reduces the attack by pests and diseases.
Hand weeding is recommended to avoid damaging roots.
It is necessary to make the soil loose using a small, sharp stick or a hand folk.

Thinning
Thinning can be done when there are too many seedlings in the farrows (drills). Seedlings may be thinned to 20cm apart when they are about two weeks old.

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL
Seedlings have to be protected from pests and diseases. Some pests of vegetable seedlings are caterpillars, grasshopper, nematodes and aphids.

PEST CONTROL IN VEGETABLE NURSERY

PEST	CONTROL
Aphids	spray marathion spray with tephrosia
grasshoppers	spray Carbaryl
cutworms	drenching the soil with actellic 1ml in 1 litre of water
caterpillars	spray Carbaryl at a rate of 85g in 14 litres of water

All these pests can be controlled by spraying with tephrosia or using smelly mulching materials like lemon grass, mpungabwi or plant strong smelling crops for example garlic.

DISEASES
Dumping off is one of the common diseases in the vegetable nursery. It is caused by fungus and promoted by overwatering.

It can be prevented by:
ª sowing at recommended spacing
ª sterilising the soil before sowing
ª dusting the seed with a fungicide such as captain and thiram
ª frequent weeding
ª avoid overwatering

HARDENING OFF
This is the gradual reduction of frequency of watering to seedlings.
This is done to prepare seedlings for the hot and dry condition in the garden.
The temporary mulch should be removed in the second or third week after germination. Watering is reduced to once a day for weeks after germination.

UNIT 24 SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION FOR GROWING LEAF VEGETABLES

CHOOSING A SITE FOR A VEGETABLE GARDEN
There are many factors to be considered when choosing a site for a vegetable garden. The following are some of them:
ª water supply
ª type of soil
ª nearness to home or school
ª nearness to market

LAND PREPARATION
Land preparation for leaf vegetable growing include:

clearing the site for field beds
making a fence to protect the vegetables from animals
tilling the land to a depth of 20cm
breaking large lumps of soil
marking out bed. A bed should be 1 metre in width. It can be of any length. The length of the bed depends on availability of land and amount of vegetables to be produced.
spreading compost or farmyard manure or fertilizer over the bed
raking the manure and fertilizer into the soil
levelling the ground

UNIT 25 TRANSPLANTING LEAF VEGETABLES

TRANSPLANTING VEGETABLE SEEDLINGS
Most leaf vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting in about 4 to 5 weeks after sowing. This is when most seedlings have reached recommended size or height of 10 to 15 centimetres.
Seedlings should be transplanted late in the afternoon on cool, cloudy or rainy day so that they do not wilt.
Seedlings are hardened-off before transplanting.
Hardening-off is done by reducing the frequency of watering seedlings to once per day for a period of 1 to 2 weeks before transplanting. The seedlings can be left without watering for the last 2 to 3 days before transplanting

RECOMMENDED SPACING FOR SOME LEAF VEGETABLES

vegetable	spacing(cm)
vegetable	between rows	between plants
cabbage	50	50
rape	30	50
bonongwe (Amaranthus)	30	30
mustard	45	60
Chinese cabbage	45	60
lettuce	30	30

The steps to follow when transplanting leaf vegetable seedlings are as follows:

water the nursery beds thoroughly
water the field beds thoroughly
mark out the planting holes at the right distances in a straight line in the field beds
dig holes in the positions marked
lift the seedlings out of the nursery bed with as much soil as possible around the roots and place them in an open container
place the seedling carefully into planting hole without bending the roots
fill the holes with soil up to the collar mark of the seedlings. Press the soil around the plant firmly and gently with fingers.
mulch the beds
water the beds

UNIT 26 FIELD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR LEAF VEGETABLES

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR VEGETABLES IN FIELD BEDS
The transplanted seedling must be properly taken care of for them to survive and develop to maturity.

The following are some of the management practices:

Mulching
Watering
Weeding
Supplying
Fertilizer or manure application
Disease and pest control
Harvesting leaf vegetables

MULCHING
Place the mulch at 5-7cm away from the seedlings to prevent termites or other ants from damaging the seedlings.

IMPORTANCE OF MULCHING

Reduces weed growth by suffocating its seedlings
conserves the soil moisture by decreasing the evaporation of water from the soil surface.
decreases soil erosion by protecting the soil surface from contact by raindrops
controls the soil temperature
adds the plant foods to the soil when it decomposes
reduces the spread of diseases by controlling the splashes (when it rains) of soil particles that contain disease causing organisms.

WATERING

water the transplanted seedlings twice a day, in the morning and late afternoon.
as seedlings are getting old reduce the frequency to once a day.
during the dry season, frequency of watering should be increased to avoid wilting of vegetables

IMPORTANCE OF WATERING

dissolves the plant food (nutrients)
makes the plant absorb the nutrients from the soil and transports them to the leaves.
makes plants to manufacture their food since water is one of the main components required in the process of food making
enables the plants to transport the manufactured food to all other parts of a plant
cools down the plants when it is very hot through transpiration

WEEDING

Weed on a sunny day so that weeds can dry up and die
Weeding can be done using trowel, handfork or small hoes, weeds close the vegetable plants should be uprooted. Mulch beds after weeding to supress weed growth

IMPORTANCE OF WEEDING

Reduces insect and disease attack
reduces competition for plants nutrients, air, sunlight, water, space between vegetable plants and weeds
promotes production of quality leaf vegetables
loosens the soil allowing more water to infiltrate and air to circulate freely

SUPPLYING
Replacement of dead vegetable plants should be done within a week of transplanting.

IMPORTANCE OF SUPPLYING

Maintains correct plant population in order to increase productivity

FERTILIZER/MANURE APPLICATION

make holes at 5-10cm away from the planting station
apply 8g of CAN or Urea fertilizer per station or half teaspoon per station

IMPORTANCE OF MANURE OR FERTILIZER

for development of green leaves
for development of juicy leaves
for fast growth of the vegetables

DISEASE AND PEST CONTROL

DISEASES OF LEAF VEGETABLES AND THEIR CONTROL

Disease	Their signs	control
Damping off	seedlings appear water soaked at ground level and they collapse	avoid over watering and dense planting bury the diseased plants spray the recommended chemicals

Leaf spot	small yellowish or brown spots on leaves causing the older leaves to face off	use clean seed, crop rotation, field hygiene, spray a chemical called chlorothanil or Daconil at 2g in 1 litre of water
Leaf bright	Brown-black spot with a yellow margin on older leaves, stems and petioles	use clean seed, crop rotation, field hygiene spray with the recommended chemicals
Black leg fungus	red-brown spots on the leaves, root decay	treat the seeds before sowing spray with the recommended chemicals crop rotation
Black-rot	blackening of the vascular tissues causing blockage of water supply, yellow v-shaped spots with white threads of fungi on the lower surface	seed treatment crop rotation crop hygiene grow crops in cool season
Downy mildew	young plants develop irregular brown or white spots with white threads of fungi on the lower surface	spray with Mancozel (Dithane m45) at the rate of 2g in 1 litre of water
Heart rot	the whole plant rots	spray with recommended chemicals sterilize the beds before sowing apply ash on the leaves crop hygiene

PESTS OF LEAF VEGETABLES AND THEIR CONTROL

Pest	Type of damage	control
Aphids	sucks the leaf sap causing leaves to curve inside and wilting	introduce lady bird beetle spray actellic 50EC at 1 litre of water use of trap crops such as milk weed which attracts aphid away from vegetables
Cutworms	cut the stem at ground level	Sterilizing the soil by either burning or use chemicals
Caterpillars	feed on leaves and tender stems of leaves	spray Carbaryl
Grasshoppers	feed on leaves and stem of vegetable seedlings	spray Carbaryl weeding
Nematodes	swelling on the roots	practice crop rotation

Mole crickets	cut the leaves at ground level	dig them up
Leaf eating beetles	chew the leaves and feed on roots	pick them up spray malanthion or Carbaryl or cypermethrin

Chemicals should be applied and allowed a period of 2 weeks before harvesting. Apply chemicals when pests exist in the field beds.

IMPORTANCE OF PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

prevents transmission of diseases
prevents destruction of the leaves
promotes fast growth of the plants
increases vegetable yields
improves quality

HARVESTING LEAF VEGETABLES

harvest vegetables before they develop tough fibres or when the head is firm in case of cabbage
harvest early in the morning when the crop still has some moisture
use a sharp knife cutting the leaf stock at an angle
keep the produce in fresh condition
harvest leaf vegetables regularly

IMPORTANCE OF HARVESTING LEAF VEGETABLES AT THE RIGHT TIME

more leaf is produced
flowering is delayed
tender leaves are harvested

UNIT 27 IMPORTANCE OF RABBITS

IMPORTANCE OF RABBITS

provide meat for the people
they produce and grow faster than other animals such as goats, sheep or pigs
they produce manure for crop production
they are a good source of income to farmers after selling
they are easy to feed as they can feed on kitchen leftovers
their hair is used as a raw material for making woollen clothes
they require small space

BREEDS OF RABBITS
There are different breeds of rabbits. These are:

Angora
California
New Zealand White
Flemish Giant

The recommended breeds in Malawi are New Zealand White and California.
These two breeds are able to adapt to different conditions and systems of keeping rabbits.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RABBIT BREEDS

California Black

it is small in size, weighs about 3.5kg to 4.5kg when mature
it produces more offsprings
it is black in colour

New Zealand White

it is big and weighs about 4kg to 5kg when mature
it produces more offsprings
it is white in colour

Flemish Giant

it is very big and weighs about 5kg to 6kg when mature
it does not produce a lot of offsprings
it is grey in colour

UNIT 28 HOUSING AND FEEDING RABBITS HOUSING RABBITS
Rabbits need to be properly housed for increased production. A good rabbit house protects the rabbits from enemies such as dogs, cats and snakes. It also protects rabbits from bad weather.

There are different ways of housing rabbits such as:

Pole and thatch khola

It is made of poles and thatched with grass. The khola is raised 1m above the ground for hygienic reasons. This reduces infestation of maggots and worms. Rabbits are also unable to burrow the ground and hide. The floor or bottom of the khola should have holes big enough for droppings to fall through and small enough for young ones not to fall through. A wire mesh or flat mesh can be put on the floor if the floor has big spaces. This keeps the khola well ventilated and self cleaned.

Deep litter khola

Constructed using bricks or stones. The roof is thatched with grass or iron sheets. Make sure that there is enough space for each rabbit. Provide bedding materials such as wood shavings to a depth of 7.5 cm as litter. The deep litter khola should have clean and dry litter to prevent infestation of maggots.

Hutches

Can be constructed using wood or bamboos. Hutches can be divided into individual cages. Hutches should be easily transportable if need be. Does, bucks and weaners have different cages. A cage for a buck is slightly larger than a doe's. This is to accommodate a buck and doe when placed in a buck's cage for mating.

Single hutch for a doe

Hutch for weaners

Single hutch for a buck

FEEDING RABBITS
Rabbits are easier to feed largely because of their small bodies. They can be fed on food which otherwise would be thrown away by a household. They are an example of animals that do not compete with humans for food, such that a farmer is unlikely to face the problems in supplying food to rabbits. Proper feeding is a key to successful rabbit production.
Rabbits kept in hatches and kholas are totally dependent on the keeper for the feed.
Rabbits prefer fresh feed materials such as carrots, potato vines, cabbage and ground haulms, elephant grass, banana leaves, mwanaaligone, Tridax (Kwakhwaniwa). Green grass should also be fed to rabbits daily in addition to other feeds. A balanced feed should be prepared or bought and fed to rabbits at all times.

THE FOLLOWING GUIDELINES CAN BE USED TO PREPARE FEED FOR RABBITS:

COMMON CONCENTRATE FEED STUFFS AND HOW TO MIX THEM
Group A sun flower cake or groundnut cake
Group B boiled and dried beans or cotton seed cake Group C maize, rice, sorghum or millet, (meal or bran) Group D dried cassava or dried sweet potatoes

HOW TO MIX

mix 4 cups of group C with 1 cup of group A
mix 3 cups of group C with 2 cups of group B
mix 2 cups of group D with 2 cups of group B and 1 cup of group A NB any suitable container can be used instead of a cup.

Grain products should be put in heavy feeding troughs which rabbits cannot trip over. Plant materials

such as grass can be hanged (suspended off the ground or floor) in the cage as rabbits do not eat spoiled feed
Over feeding should be avoided especially green feeds because they have plenty of water which will make the belly of rabbits to be filed with water resulting in low growth.
One way of noticing a hungry rabbit is that it comes to meet the farmer when approaching the khola.

WATER
Provide clean water to rabbits at all times.
A low supply of water will affect feed intake, growth and production of milk in rabbits. Water should be put in heavy containers so that they are not tripped over by rabbits. If rabbits are given large amounts large of dry feeds increase the supply of water.

UNIT 29 DISEASE AND PARASITE CONTROL IN RABBITS RABBIT DISEASES
Rabbits are attacked by several diseases.
The table below shows some of the diseases, their causes, signs, prevention and treatment.

Name of disease	Causes	Signs	Prevention	Treatment
Coccidiosis	Protozoa	Lack of appetite Dullness of rabbits Severe diarrhoea Dehydration Rapid death	Keep khola or cage dry all the times	Coccidiostats in feed or drinking water
Colds (snuffles Disease)	Bacteria Virus	Sneezing Mucus discharge from nostrils	Isolate sick rabbits Avoid overcrowding of rabbits Good ventilation General hygiene	Antibiotics in drinking water
Rabbit pox	virus	small blisters on the skin	vaccinate young rabbits goal against rabbits pox	Treat the sores with appropriate drugs

Sores hocks

bacteria

sores on feet

Avoid putting rabbits in rough floors especially floors made of interwoven wire or

very thin wire

Treat the sore with antibiotic ointment

Other diseases that may attack rabbits are tuberculosis, rabies and ear cancer. Rabbits which die from unknown causes should be removed and burnt.

PARASITES
Rabbits are attacked by external and internal parasites.

INTERNAL PARASITE

Parasites	Damage caused	Prevention	Treatment
Tape worm	Suck digested feed Rabbits lose weight	Cleanliness of houses Keep feeding and dry	Use piperazine or any deworming
Round worm	Suck digested food Rabbits lose weight	Clean the house Change wet litters	Use piperazine
coccidia	Attacks the lining of the liver and intestine Severe diarrhoea (diarrhoea may be blood stained)	Keep house or cage clean	Coccidiostats

Round worms Tape worms

EXTERNAL PARASITES
Some of the external parasites that attack rabbits include: ear mites, fleas and lice. These suck blood and the rabbits may lose hair (fur) and cause irritation to the skin. Ear mite can cause a disease called ear cancer.
External parasites can generally be controlled by cleanliness of rabbit houses or cages.

Flea Mite Louse

UNIT 30 IMPORTANCE AND SYSTEMS OF AGROFORESTRY

MEANING OF AGROFORESTRY
The term "agroforestry" is formed by combining two original words of "agronomy" and "forestry". Therefore, the term "agroforestry" means the growing of arable crops together with trees on the same piece of land.

TYPES OF AGROFORESTY
Agroforestry is classified into three main types as follows:

Silvoarable
silvopasture
forest farming

Silvoarable
Mixing trees with arable or horticultural crops such as maize, sorghum, beans, cotton, groundnuts, cabbages, tomato and carrots.

Silvopasture
Mixing trees with pastures or grass for grazing livestock.

Forest farming
Cultivating high value products within the forested area:

Medicine, botanical decoratives, handcrafts, food as well.

SYSTEMS OF AGROFORESTRY
The following are some of the agroforestry systems practiced in Malawi:

Folder banks
Live fence
Improved fallows
Dispersed tree planting
Alley cropping

Folder banks
This involves planting trees used as feed for livestock alternated with arable crops. The tree are frequently pruned to feed livestock.

Live fence
This involves planting trees and shrubs along the boundaries of arable crops.
Some of these trees may produce agroforestry products like fruits, timber and firewood.

Improved fallows
This involves growing legume trees on an arable land which is under fallow. This increases organic matter and improves soil structure and fertility.

Dispersed tree planting
This involves planting certain types of trees at random with arable crops.

Alley cropping
This involves planting rows of trees alternated with rows of arable crops.

IMPORTANCE OF AGROFORESTRY

The leaves fall and add nutrients to the soil
Improving soil fertility and crop yields
Legume leaves are rich in nitrogen
Roots of leguminous trees fix nitrogen
Providing food for livestock
Controlling soil erosion and water run off on steep slopes
Providing fuel wood, timber or poles for buildings

Providing protection
Improving food security
Source of medicine

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGROFORESTRY TREE SPECIES

Ability to accommodate other crops
Ability to improve soil fertility
High nutritive value
Edible fruits
Ability to generate
Medicinal value

Written by Zikomo Masese Banda

REFERENCE

MIE (2008) Agriculture Teachers’ Guide for Standard 7, Domasi; MIE

UNIT 1 JUDGES

UNIT 2 TEACHING IN PARABLES
UNIT 3 USE OF PARABLES
UNIT 4 DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE
UNIT 5 CHRISTIAN GROWTH
UNIT 6 RESPONSIBILITIES FOR VULNERABLE GROUPS
UNIT 7 KINGS OF ISRAEL
UNIT 8 COMMUNICATING WITH GOD UNIT 9 CHURCH AND POLITICS

UNIT 1 JUDGES Written by Zikomo Masese Banda
A judge is a public official who has the power to decide.

JUDGES OF ISRAEL

Gideon
Samson
Deborah
Jephthah

PEOPLE WHO CAN ACT AS JUDGES

teachers
chiefs
umpires
referees

RESPONSIBILITIES AND ROLES OF A JUDGE

settling disputes and minor disagreements
protecting the rights of the people
interpreting the law
assessing the evidence presented
controlling how hearings and trials unfold in their courtrooms

THE STORY OF GIDEON (Judges Chapters 6, 7 and 8)
The Israelites had sinned against God and were serving punishment. Everything they had was taken away by the Midianites.
It was because of these reasons that the Lord appointed Gideon, the son of Joash from the clan of Mannasseh, to save Israel from the hands of the Midianites.

THE MISSION OF GIDEON
The mission of Gideon was to save Israel from the Midianites.
Gideon was with the Lord and he conquered Midian using only 300 men. This was a small number of soldiers compared to those of the Midianites.

God told Gideon to use a small number of soldiers to show God’s power.

THE STORY OF SAMSON (Judges Chapters 15 and 16)
God appointed Samson, the son of Manoah, to deliver the Israelites from the hands of the Philistines. During his life, Samson killed many Philistines.
As a Nazarite, Samson was not supposed to cut his hair because his strength was in the hair. Later, after several attempts, Samson revealed his secret to his wife Delilah.
The wife then told her people who sent her to cut his hair and Samson became weak. Afterwards, the Philistines gouged Samson's eyes out.
One day they took him to a building to entertain them. During entertainment, Samson prayed to God
He held two pillars of the building and pushed them.
The building fell down and killed everyone in the building including Samson.

THE MISSION OF SAMSON
The mission of Samson was to deliver Israel from the hands of the Philistines.

THE STORY OF DEBORAH (Judges Chapter 4) The Israelites had sinned again.
This time the Lord handed them over for twenty years to the Canaanites whose King was Jabin.
At this point the Lord appointed Deborah, the Prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth to be a judge among them.

THE MISSION OF DEBORAH
The mission of Deborah was to deliver the Israelites from the hands of the Canaanites.
Deborah together with Barak, the army commander, managed to defeat the Canaanites with the help of God.

THE STORY OF JEPHTHAH (Judges Chapter 11) Jephthah was born from a harlot (prostitute). He was not liked by his half-brothers.
He was thrown away because they did not want him to inherit their father's house.
Later on, he was called by the elders and his brothers to assist them in fighting against the Ammonites.

THE MISSION OF JEPHTHAH
Jephthah's mission was to deliver Israel from the Ammonites.
Jephthah vowed to God that he would offer as a burnt offering anything that would be the first to welcome him from war.
His only daughter welcomed him and he offered her as a burnt offering.

UNIT 2 TEACHING IN PARABLES

A parable is a story using everyday events to illustrate a religious or moral point.

WHY JESUS USED PARABLES IN HIS TEACHINGS

for easy understanding
to illustrate and convey meanings beyond the story

EXAMPLES OF PARABLES THAT JESUS USED

the Good Samaritan
the prodigal son
the two sons
the lost coin
the vine yard

THE PARABLE OF THE GOOD SAMARITAN (Luke 10:25-37)
A lawyer tempted Jesus by asking him the following questions: What shall I do to inherit eternal life? Who is my neighbour?
Jesus answered him by telling him about the parable of a Good Samaritan.
Where a man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho when he was attacked by robbers. They stripped him of his clothes, beat him and went away, leaving him half dead.
A priest passed by without helping him.
So too a Levite passed by on the other side without helping him.
But a Samaritan, when he saw a man he took pity on him, went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine.
The Samaritan cared for the wounded man until he was fine.

THE LESSON LEARNT IN THE PARABLE OF THE GOOD SAMARITAN

The real neighbour is he who assists those in need.

THE PARABLE OF THE TWO SONS (Matthew 21:28-31)
In this parable, a father had two sons who asked them to do a work.
The first son refused to do what his father had asked him to do but later, he repented and did the work.
The second son accepted to do what the father had asked him but did not do it.

LESSON IN THE PARABLE OF THE TWO SONS

God expects his children to say the truth and obey him.

THE PARABLE OF THE PRODIGAL (LOST) SON (Luke 15:11-32)
The lost son realised his sinfulness and suffering. He decided to go back to his father for forgiveness.
On return his father welcomed him and celebrated by killing a fattened calf. The elder brother was angry with the father's decision
But the father persuaded him to forgive and accept his young brother.

THE LESSON IN THE PARABLE OF THE LOST SON

It is important to forgive those who repent.

THE PARABLE OF THE LOST COIN (Luke 15:8-10)
In this parable a woman lost a coin and laboured to find it.
After she had found it, she rejoiced together with her friends and neighbours.

THE LESSON IN THE PARABLE OF THE LOST COIN

God expects his people to be concerned with those that are lost and bring them back.

UNIT 3 USE OF PARABLES

THE USE OF PARABLES IN MALAWIAN CULTURE
Parables are used in Malawian culture to tell stories about everyday life while giving a lesson beyond the story.

EXAMPLES OF PARABLES USED IN MALAWIAN CULTURE

chikomekome cha nkhuyu m'kati muli nyerere
kanthu kali makonda buluzi anakonda khonde
kuteteza n'kwabwino kuposa kuchiza
zokoma sizikuti leke
safunsa anadya phula
mbuzi ikakondwa amalonda ali pafupi

"All that glitters is not gold" (chikomekome cha nkhuyu m'kati muli nyerere) means that it is not good to be attracted by the outward appearance of anything.

"Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder" (kanthu kali makonda buluzi anakonda khonde) "Prevention is better than cure" (kuteteza n'kwabwino kuposa kuchiza)

"Good things do not fill a spoon" (zokoma sizikuti leke)

THE USE OF PARABLES IN TEACHINGS OF JESUS (Luke 10:25-37; Matthew 21:28-31; Luke 15:11-32; Luke 8:4-21)
Jesus used parables to illustrate and convey meanings beyond the stories. These include the parables of the vineyard and people losing their coins. Jesus used such stories for easy understanding.

UNIT 4 DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Drug and substance abuse means using drugs and substances for wrong purposes.
Drug and substance abuse has adverse effects on the health and development of a person.
They may cause damage to the skin, heart, liver, brain, eyes, kidneys and other parts of the body.

Drugs
Drugs are medicines that are used for preventing and treating diseases.

EXAMPLES OF DRUGS

panado
aspirin
quinine
fansider
Bactrim
penicillin

Substances
Substances are any kind of matter used for either domestic or industrial purposes.

EXAMPLES OF SUBSTANCES

alcohol
spirit
petrol
soap
paraffin
tobacco
kachasu
vim
glue
Indian hemp
salt
soil
mandrax
cocaine
cooking oil

USES OF COMMON DRUGS AND SUBSTANCES

they are used as medicines
they are used as fuel
they are used as cooking additives
they are used as cleaning materials
they are used as stimulants

THE CAUSES OF DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

peer pressure
frustration
curiosity
loss of loved ones
loss of goods and finances
failure in examinations
wanting to commit suicide
ignorance of harmfulness of the drugs and substances

THE PREVENTION OF DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

being assertive
engaging in physical exercises
being involved in recreational activities
choosing friends with good habits and hobbies

reporting incidents of drug and substance abuse to teachers, head teachers or police
seeking guidance and counselling

CHRISTIAN TEACHINGS ON DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE (Genesis 9:20-22; Proverbs 20:1; Proverbs
23: 29-30; Proverbs 31:4-7; Galatians 5:19-21; 1 Corinthians 6:9-10, 19-20) The Bible does not allow people to abuse drugs and substances.
This is because when drugs are abused they reduce the reasoning ability of a person.

This can make a person:

commit suicide
kill others
become mad

God commands Christians to avoid drug and substance abuse. And drug and substance abuse does not please God.

UNIT 5 CHRISTIAN GROWTH

SACRAMENTS
A sacrament is an outward and visible sign instituted by Christ for an inward and spiritual blessing.

It is a Christian rite of faith that elaborates some doctrines, a ritual observance that acts as a sign of loyalty by the believer.

EXAMPLES OF SACRAMENTS

baptism
Lord’s Supper

HOW SACRAMENTS ARE ADMINISTERED (Matthew 3:13-16; 26:26-30)

By sprinkling
By immersion
By eating
By drinking

IMPORTANCE OF SACRAMENTS (1 Corinthians 11:23-30; John 13:1-12; Acts 8:36-38)

Receiving blessings from God
Living a righteous Christian life
Living in peace with other people
Having a sense of belonging
Renewing one’s spiritual life

UNIT 6 RESPONSIBILITIES FOR VULNERABLE GROUPS

VULNERABLE GROUPS IN SOCIETY
Vulnerable groups are those people that lack protection, care and essentials.

SOME VULNERABLE GROUPS

Women
Children
People with special needs
People living with HIV and AIDS

STREET CHILDREN
Street children are children that seek food and shelter in the streets.

CIRCUMSTANCES THAT LEAD CHILDREN TO BE IN THE STREETS

Orphanhood
Physical challenges
Ill-treatment
Loneliness

Homelessness

SOME CHILDREN’S RIGHTS BEING VIOLATED WHEN CHILDREN LIVE IN STREETS

Right to descent life
Right to education
Right to good health
Right to good food
Right to parental care and guidance

CHRISTIAN ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES FOR STREET CHILDREN (Isaiah 58:7; Acts 3:1-10)

Providing them with education
Providing them with food
Providing them with shelter
Providing them with clothes
Providing them with spiritual care
Providing them with protection

UNIT 7 KINGS OF ISRAEL

A KING
A king is a sovereign ruler of a country or state who inherits the position by right of birth.

ROLES OF A KING

Defending his country from enemies
Settling disputes
Bringing peace where there are misunderstandings
Maintaining order
Living as a role model of the society

In the Bible, kings had divine charisma.

Their roles included:

Acting as judges
Deciding cases
Defending their territories from enemies
Enforcing rules and commandments of God in their states

Charisma means power given to a person by the favour of God.

SOME KINGS OF ISRAEL

David
Saul
Solomon
Ahab

The first king of Israel was Saul.
The second king of Israel was David.

THE KINGSHIP OF SAUL (1 Samuel 9:1-27; 1 Samuel 10:17-25; 1 Samuel 15:24-26; 1 Samuel
17:1-11)
Saul was a son of Kish from the tribe of Benjamin.
God told Samuel to anoint Saul as the first king of Israel. Saul’s main task was to free Israel from her enemies.
However, Saul sinned and was later rejected by God as a king of Israel. Saul’s sin was that he did not obey God’s instructions (1 Samuel 15)

THE KINGSHIP OF DAVID (1 Samuel 16:1-13; 1 Samuel 17:1-11; 41-54)
Samuel anointed David as king in place of Saul at Bethlehem. David was a son of Jesse.
During David’s reign, God was with him.
For example, he defeated the giant Goliath, the ruler of the Philistines. David used a sling and a stone to kill Goliath.
After the death of Goliath, all the Philistines ran away because they knew they had lost the war.

UNIT 8 COMMUNICATING WITH GOD

COMMUNICATION
Communication is the passing of information from one person to another.

WAYS OF HOW PEOPLE COMMUNICATE WITH EACH OTHER

Letters
Bells
Videos
Films
Televisions
Phones
Internet
Face to face

Communication can also be between God and people. Communication between God and people is called sacred message.

WAYS OF COMMUNICATING WITH GOD (1 Kings 18:36-38; 1 Samuel 1:10-20; Acts 10:19-23; Acts
16:25-27)

Reading the Bible
Singing spiritual songs
Praying
Praising
Burnt offerings

In the Bible, Elijah communicated with God through burnt offering.
Hannah, Paul and Silas communicated with God through praising and praying.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PRAYER IN THE LIFE OF A CHRISTIAN (1 Kings 18:36-38; 1 Samuel 1:10-20; Acts 16: 25-27; Acts 9:36-41; Acts 10:3-23)

Receiving Blessings
Protection from evil
Living a stress-free life
Having good relationships

UNIT 9 CHURCH AND POLITICS

CHURCH
Church may refer to a building used for public worship by Christians or a particular group of believers.

POLITICS
Politics refers to the art and science of government.

The church promotes good judgement in their congregations. Politicians are also expected to judge issues well.

The church teaches its members the importance of respect for each other by following what Jesus did while he was on earth.

There is democracy in the church through respect of the views of other members.

Good politicians are also supposed to promote democratic values.

The church teaches about unity among members while politicians also talk about unity in their gatherings.

HOW LEADERS ARE CHOSEN IN CHURCH AND IN POLITICS

Through election
Through appointment

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHURCH AND POLITICS

Some of those who are practising politicians are also members of the church
Both church and politics deal with the same people
God is the one who appoints rulers
Oftentimes rulers pray to God whenever they want to do important things

BIBLE TEACHING ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHURCH AND POLITICS (Psalm 47:2-3; 1 Samuel 16:
12-13; 2 Samuel 12:5; Matthew 17:24-27; Luke 20:20-26; John 17:14-16; Romans 13:1-7) The Bible has many examples that show the relationship between church and politics.

God commands members of the church to submit themselves to political authorities because they were appointed by God.

God says rebelling against the authorities is rebelling against God who instituted them and anyone doing that brings judgement on themselves.

Jesus said people should pay tax because the authorities are God’s servants.

REFERENCES

MIE (2008) Bible Knowledge Teacher’s Guide for Standard 7, Domasi; MIE. MIE (2008) Bible Knowledge Learner’s Book for Standard 7, Domasi; MIE. The Holy Bible (NIV)
www.cscja-acjcs.ca/role_of_judge-en.asp

Notes will be here

	Unit 1 Artistic shapes and movements
	Unit 2 Participating and collaborating in sports and arts
	Unit 3 Self expression through artwork
	Unit 4 Solving challenges in everyday life
	Unit 5 Producing various items for the community
	Unit 6 Various artistic activities

PERSONAL AND GENERAL SPACE

Personal space refers to that space within the reach of an individual

General space refers to the environment within which an individual operates It may be a small room, large field or cafeteria
Failure to understand personal or general space may result in hardships of some kind For example, limited personal space may lead to failure to perform an activity effectively Limited general space can lead to participants bumping into one another

Components of General Space

There are four components of general space:

Levels
Extensions
Floor pathways
Air patterns

Levels refers to how close to the floor or how far away from the floor one is as he or she moves
Extensions refers to locomotor actions. It describes the amount of space a movement pattern uses
Floor pathway refers to how people move on the floor
Air patterns refers to aerial directions as in netball, volleyball and javelin

NB, Personal space is one’s area of influence or direct control. It is also called kinesphere
It depends on a number of factors such as size of the person and the type of activity being done

IMPORTANCE OF GENERAL AND PERSONAL SPACE

activities are done properly
there is free body movement
accidents that happen during performance of activities are reduced

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE GENERAL AND PERSONAL SPACE

the type of activities to be done
the size of the area to be used for activities
the body size of the participants

the number of participants involved in the activities

Artistic Activities within Personal and General Space

Dancing
Drawing
Carving
Sculpturing
Skiing
Jumping
Swimming
Running
Jabbing in boxing

ACTIVITIES THAT REQUIRE PERSONAL SPACE

skipping individually
head stand
forward roll
backward roll
push ups
jogging
sewing

ACTIVITIES THAT REQUIRE GENERAL SPACE

ball games
field and track events
nzamanzama
javelin
skipping in twos, threes and larger groups

HOW PERSONAL SPACE CAN BE CREATED

stretching out the arms outwards and then turning around on the same spot while swinging the arms
stretching out arms in different directions without touching anything or anybody

OCCASIONS WHEN THE SOCIETY DOES NOT FOLLOW RULES OF PERSONAL SPACE

wedding ceremonies
funeral ceremonies
meetings
traditional dances
installation of chiefs

The term ‘artistic ‘refers to the creativity, beauty and excellence in doing an activity, be it physical or non- physical.

BODY MOVEMENTS

Movements occur always in everyday life.
Most of the daily activities that we do require body movements. For example; cooking and sweeping. Body movements may also occur in response to a stimulus.

Body Movements in Response to Rhythms

The rhythm is a combination of different lengths of sounds and silences.

Examples of Rhythmic Activities in Everyday Life

Heart beating
Clock ticking
Walking
Talking
Running
Drawing
Singing songs
Pounding
Playing instruments
Carving wood
Digging

Sounds and silences can be presented by symbols called musical notes. There are 5 commonly used notes:

Whole note

it is oval in shape and has a white note head

Half note

it is made of a white head and a stem

Quarter note

it has a black head and a stem

Eighth note

it has a black head, a stem and a flag

Sixteenth note

it has a black head, a stem and two flags Sounds are also known as pitches.

Silences are also known as rest. Beat is also called pulse.

Musical notes have British and American names.

Rest signs and their names

TIME SIGNATURES

A time signature is a set of two numbers at the beginning of a rhythm.

It is written as a fraction such as 6/8

The top number shows the number of beats or counts in a bar/measure.
The bottom number shows the name of the musical note that is getting one beat or count.

The most commonly used time signature is 4/4 because it is easy to understand and learn.

STAFF NOTATION

The notation of music consists of staffs, clefs, meter or time signature, key signatures and notes of various times which indicate the relative duration of pitches.
Musical notation, therefore, comprises a set of terms and symbols for musical meanings.

The staff/stave

This refers to a set of five lines and four spaces on which musical symbols are written to give a melody or a song.

Sometimes when writing music you may need additional lines below or above the staff. Such lines are called ‘ledger lines’. They indicate pitches above or below a staff.

Letter names

The five lines and four spaces have letter names which do not change. The letters are A B C D E F G.

G and F clefs

These are symbols allocated at the beginning of the staff, on the left end. G clef or Treble clef identifies the second line from the bottom as line G. G or Treble clef staff is used for soprano and alto voices in choral music.

The ‘F’ clef or ‘Bass’ clef establishes the location of F in the fourth line of the staff. F clef staff is used for tenor and bass voices.

Bar lines

These are vertical lines on the staff which divide the staff into parts containing equal number of beats.

Bar/measure

This is the space between bar lines and containing specified number of beats.

Octave

This is a distance that covers eight musical notes, with the first note being equal in tone to the eighth note, however, lower in pitch to the eighth.

Sol-fa syllables

These are the pitch names: DO RE MI FA SO LA TI DO

Transpose

It means changing a piece of music from one key to another. For example, from C to F or G or vice versa.
There are various reasons for transposing a piece of music.

The following are some of the reasons:

when a choir wishes to sing a higher or lower key so as to assist either adolescent boys’ or men’s voices to sing comfortably.
When a singer himself or herself wants to sing a song in a higher or lower key comfortably.

Key signature

This identifies which pitch is do
It is shown on the staff with sharps or flats.

Here are some examples of keys

Scale

This is the arrangement of notes usually of the same totality, either in ascending or descending order.

Two examples are:-

Diatonic scale

This includes eight pitches in major or minor scales. For example, do re mi fa so ra ti do

Pentatonic scale

This includes only five pitches in major or minor scale (the fourth and seventh pitches are left out).

For example; do re mi so la do
The terms and signs are shown in the staffs as below:-

A DOTTED NOTE

A dot takes half the value of any note or rest that it is attached to.
If the value of a quarter note is equal to 1 beat, then a dotted note is equal to 1 beat plus half one beat, so the total value is one and a half beats.
Examples

would normally be combined with an eighth note to produce a 2 beat duration. For example;

would normally be combined with a semiquaver to produce a 1 beat duration. For example;

BEAMING NOTES

A beaming note is a line which is used to join two or more notes together.
The number of beams or lines one uses to join the notes will tell the number of flags each one of the joined note has.
For example:-

Rhythm patterns can be performed by:-

Clapping hands
Tapping on the table
Playing percussion instruments
Walking according to rhythm patterns

MUSICAL TERMS

Beat = equal division of sound or time
Rhythm = unequal division of sound or time
Tempo = speed of a song
Dynamics = loudness or softness of a song
Unison = to sing in one voice
Attack = to start singing together
A staff (stave) = a set of five parallel lines with four spaces on which music notes are written
Measure/bar = a space between two bar lines
Bar = any of the sections of equal value in time into which a piece of music is divided and the notes in it
Bar lines = lines written on the staff before and after a measure
Double bar lines = it is a full stop in music
Ledger lines = these are extended (extra) lines on a staff
Treble (G) clef = it is a symbol written at the beginning of a staff
Key signature = it is a starting pitch of a song
Music = the arrangement of sounds in pleasing sequence or combination to be sung or played on instruments
Time signature = it is a symbol which looks like a fraction. The top number represents the number of beats in a measure. The bottom number indicates the type of a note which gets a beat. For example

Clef = a symbol at the beginning of a line of printed music (or stave) showing the pitch of the notes on it
Pitch = the quality of a musical note, a voice, et cetera, especially how high or low it is
Tone = any one of the five larger intervals between one note and the next which, together with two semitones, form an octave
Semitone (half tone) = half of a tone on a musical scale, for example the distance between C an C# or between E and F
Octave = the difference or space between the first and the last in a series of eight notes on a musical scale
Note = a single sound of a certain pitch and length, made by the voice or a musical instrument
Note = a sign used to represent such a sound in written or printed music
Note = any one of the keys of a piano, et cetera

Tune = a series of musical notes that give a piece of music its main character, making it pleasing, easy to remember

Slur = the mark or used to show that two or more notes are to be played or sung smoothly and without a break
Slur = to play or sing musical notes so that each one runs smoothly to the next
Semibreve (whole note) = the longest written musical note in common use equal to two minims in length
Minim = a note that last half as long as semibreve
Crotchet = a note equal to half a minim
Quaver = a note in music that last half as long as a crotchet
Tie (in written music) = a curved line over two notes of the same pitch that are to be played or sung as one
Percussion = musical instruments that are played by striking, beating or tapping with a stick, et cetera, for example, drums
Melody = a piece of music or a song with a clear or a single tune
Melody = the arrangement of musical notes in a pleasant or ordered way
Sharp (n) = a note raised by one semitone or the symbol used
Natural (adj) = neither sharp nor flat e.g. B natural
Sharp (adj) = above normal or correct pitch
Flat (adj) = (used following the name of a note) half a note lower than the specified note. B flat is a semitone below B

MIRRORING

Mirroring is the act of copying actions, words, or expressions of another person
It is a commonly used technique in physical activities intended to demonstrate a physical movement: a new dance step, a lay-up in basketball, a tennis serve, including running activities.

SOME MIRRORING GAMES

Netball
Football
Handball
Table tennis
Basketball
Lawn tennis
Baseball
Squash
Chipako
Mbalame zoyera

MIRRORING AEROBICS

Aerobics are physical exercises done following music Aerobics is a great medium to develop fitness

Types of Aerobics

High impact aerobics

This involves a lot of jumping

Low impact aerobics

This does not involve jumping, but always, one foot has contact with the floor

Step aerobics

This uses stepping up and down from the platform

Tai bo

This uses kicks and punches

Aerobics is different from dance, because the aim of aerobics is to improve fitness while the aim of dance is to develop creativity.
NB. Aerobics is vigorous physical exercises done in order to increase the amount of oxygen taken into the body.

CONVEYING CULTURAL MESSAGES Garments Conveying Cultural Messages

The different attire that people wear may have a meaning for the specific occasion or function.For example, in Malawi, the Ngoni are fond of wearing their traditional attire of animal skins and shields to symbolise that they are warriors.
During most weddings, the bride wears white attire to symbolise purity.
During funerals, widows usually wear black attire during the entire mourning period to symbolise sorrow.
During the biblical times, the kings and officials wore sackcloth when something went wrong or when calamity fell on the land.

Sounds Used to Convey Messages

Some sounds have cultural meanings.
These sounds can be those produced during certain functions and occasions which are understood by the people who share the same culture.

For example:-

Whistle blowing
Drum beating
Mouth whistling
Bell ringing
Singing

Posture and Body Movements

Cultural values can be manifested in many different ways besides attire and dances. There are certain postures and movements which portray cultural meanings.
For example, when crossing with elders, most cultures recommend the younger one takes off the hat temporarily as a sign of respect.
There are also times when some people clap hands gently and softly when crossing with an elderly person.
Some postures and body movements are squatting or kneeling when receiving or giving items to the elders.

Cultural Dances

Malawi has many cultural dances that have cultural importance for every cultural setting.
Among the well-known dances are Gulewamkulu among the Chewa, Chioda among the Nkhonde, Vimbuza among the Tumbuka, Likwata among the Sena and Jiri among the Lomwe.

IMPORTANCE OF TRADITIONAL DANCES AND SONGS

They provide enjoyment to both spectators and performers

They help to preserve culture
They promote creative thinking and imagination
They act as a source of income
They communicate messages to people
They depict one’s culture in society.

SOME TRADITIONAL DANCES PERFORMED IN THE REGIONS OF MALAWI

northern region	central region	southern region
malipenga ingoma mbotosya indingala mwinoghe vimbuza chilimika	chimtali malipenga gulewamkulu njedza chisamba chiterera mganda ngoma msindo ligubo gwanyasa	beni masewe tchopa likhuba likwata mbwidza manganje utse mchomanga jiri

MULTI-CULTURAL PERFORMANCE

Artistic Activities from Various Cultures in Malawi
Multi-cultural performances are performances from different cultures.
Malawi has different ethnic groups like the Chewa, Ngoni, Tumbuka, Lomwe and Sena. Each of these ethnic groups has its own cultural performances.
These cultural performances have any aspects that are similar and different.
These aspects include the attire, instruments used in performances, organisation of cultural performances and the type of performances.
The cultural practices (performances) serve as an identity for a particular tribe or ethnic group. Malawi has different cultural practices.
These include folk dances and songs.

A folk dance is a recreational or ceremonial dance that is usually performed by members of the community.
For some tribe, a dance could be a form of a ritual.
They believe that a certain dance can make the rain fall, improve harvest and/or awaken the spirits of the dead.

Attire for Artistic performance

In different performances such as in drama, dance or choir, performers wear appropriate attire to suit the performance.
Attire makes the performers look smart and coordinated.

DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION

Musical Instruments Based on Foreign Models

Materials for making musical instruments:-

pieces of string
pieces of wire
nails
tins
hammers
knives
metal sheets
adzes
hides
wood
plastic pipes
plastic papers

Examples of Foreign Musical Instruments

guitars
banjos
drums
flutes

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING A BANJO

The following is the procedure for making a banjo:

cut a piece of wood about 0.5m long
carve the wood into the shape as shown below

make four holes on the flat end of the wood using a piece of a hot metal as shown below

carve four pieces of wood, flat on one end and round on the other end to be used as tuning knobs
cut a slit on the round end of the tuning knobs for tying the length of string

cut a small piece of wood with four grooves to act as a bridge

cut two holes on a tin: one for the wood and the other for sound to enter

insert into the tin the wooden handle

cut a metal sheet from a tin and bore four holes for the lengths of string and two holes for nailing

nail the metal sheet to the back of the tin together with the end of the wooden handle as shown below

tie four lengths of string to the metal sheet then tie the other end of the lengths of string to the tuning knobs fixed at the head of the wooden handle
put a bridge between the hole on the tin and the metal sheet

tune the knobs to tighten the string to the required pitch
test the instrument by plucking the length of the string
decorate the banjo as required

Garments and Artistic Items Based on Modern Styles

The art of constructing garments is useful because one can make one’s own clothes and those of others.

Garments are different types of clothing.

These garments include:

Pairs of trousers
Pairs of shorts
Skirts
Blouses
Petticoats
Pairs of socks
Dresses

IMPORTANCE OF MAKING YOUR OWN GARMENTS

it is cheaper to make your own garments than buying them
it can be a source of income when the garments made are sold
it improves the skills of making different designs of garments
the one with skills in making garments can help other members of the community learn the skills of making garment free or at a nominal fee

Factors to Consider in Garment Construction

knowing what is to be made
size of the wearer
the amount of fabric to be used
the designs that are in fashion

Advantages of Taking Body Measurements

it helps one to come up with the required size of the garment which fits well
it also minimises wastage of material

PAPER PATTERNS

Paper patterns are pieces of paper cut out to the shape of parts of a garment to be made. They can be altered to suit body size.

Pattern Markings

These are markings with particular information and instructions on:-

the number of pieces to be cut
the pieces to be joined together
how to place pattern pieces on the fabric
where to stitch

Pattern Markings and Their Meanings

Materials Required for Making Garments

pieces of fabric
paper patterns
pair of scissors
tape measures
pressing irons
a clean table or mat
pins
sewing needle
thread
pieces of paper
elastic

LAYING PATTERN PIECES ON THE FABRIC AND PINNING

always have your pattern and fabric smoothed flat with a pressing iron to remove creases
press with iron if they are not smooth

fold the fabric according to the pattern layout before laying pattern pieces
lay larger pieces first, then place smaller ones last
keep the fabric flat on the table while pinning so that the pattern does not slip out of position
pin at intervals along all straight and diagonal edges into each corner

The following diagram shows a pattern layout for a petticoat

CUTTING OUT

make sure that all pattern pieces are laid out and pinned on the fabric
cut out all pieces using a sharp pair of scissors along the edge of the pattern
cut using long, even strokes in order to produce smooth edges. Do not lift the fabric when cutting
always cut away from yourself and never towards yourself with one hand supporting the fabric
after cutting out each section fold it and put it aside neatly

MAKING A SPORTS SHORTS

Cutting out Requirements

1 metre cotton fabric
pins
paper patterns
a pair of scissors

Layout

Assembling the shorts

using the open seam, join the two front and the two back pieces together

clip the front and back seams on curved edge

neaten the seams using loop stitch

join the back and front of the shorts with the French seam at the side

cut crossway strips from left over fabric. Join strips and attach at lower edges an sides of both legs

join the crotch seam and neaten with running stitches
fold over a 5cm hem on the waistline of shorts, tack and back stitch. Work running stitches on the upper edge of the waistline hem

make an opening the wrong side for inserting elastic/chord. Neaten the sides of the opening using loop stitches

press and display the finished product

Macrame

Macrame is the art of knotting (tying strings or fibres) to produce decorative and functional articles.

Two Basic Knots in Macrame

half knot (or half hitch)
flat knot (the reef hitch or weaver’s knot)

Produce from Macrame

belts
book bags
flower vase holders
flower pot holders
wall hangings

How to make a macrame pot holder

prepare enough string from sisal fibre
cut two long lengths of string and six short ones, half the length of the long ones as shown below

find the mid points of the eight length of string
put the midpoint together and tie the lengths of string at the common mid-point

using the two long lengths of string on either side of the mid-point, make flat knots with the short lengths of string as shown below

make the flat knots 15cm on either side of the mid-point
remove the string marking the mid-point
divide the lengths of string into four parts with four of them on each part
using the four lengths of string on each part, make flat knots for a lengths of about 10cm long as shown below

place the four branches of the knotted length of string around the mouth of the pot. Make flat knots to tighten the branches around the mouth of the pot, letting the loose length run down the sides of the pot
make flat knots using four lengths of string alternately as you work down the sides of the pot
continue with this process to the bottom of the pot
tie the lengths of string at the bottom of the pot
trim the lengths of string to equal size

A macrame potholder

How to make a simple macram wall hanging

Preparation

cut between cords or string into suitable lengths, e.g. 30cm
then cut between 20 and 30 pieces of string of 1m long each

make flat knots, three lines; alternate flat knot, six lines; make a half hitch, another six lines and continue with flat knots
make half any number of lines for the required lengths

close by making flat knots and leave the pieces of string hanging. Make sure you cut to the required length
the flat knot can be alternated to appear differently

Three stages of working a flat knot

Materials for Making Macrame

Items

knives
hoes
sisal fibre
tree bark fibre
banana sheath
mlulu
chilambe
namgoneka

Marketing/Advertising the Artworks

word of mouth
newspapers
radio
television
internet
posters

Ways of Storing Artwork

keep the artwork away from heat sources such as fireplaces and heaters
cover the artwork with a clean piece of cloth
place the artwork on acid free boards
keep artwork away from direct sunlight
avoid storing artwork on concrete floors or walls
avoid storing artwork in attics and basements

Drama Based on Foreign Plays

Drama is acting out situations in order to inform, entertain and educate the audience.

Types of Plays

tragedy
comedy

Tragedy is a play with a sad ending.
Comedy is a play with a happy ending.

When dramatising such plays, the actors and actresses should appear real. Firstly, this can be achieved through the use of visual aspects such as:-

scenery
costume
props
lighting
make up

Secondly, this can be achieved through sound effects such as:-

physical (vocal, feet, hands, coughs, sneezes)
percussions (drums, chimes, xylophones)

The purpose of this is to make the audience see and hear the play.

PERFORMING DANCES MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Most Malawian societies use musical instruments.

NAMING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Some of the musical instruments are:

Drums
Horn
Xylophones
Flute
Guitar
banjo
rattles

IMPORTANCE OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

they complement human voice
they add harmony in music
they reflect the cultural history of an ethnic group
they attract attentiveness and concentration of the musical players and listeners
they foster self expression
they add beauty in music
they promote discipline
they promote social skills
they boost listening skills
they relieve stress
they accompany songs and dances
they are used to convey different messages
they indicate the speed at which one can dance and when to change step

MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

traditional musical instruments do not use electricity to play while most modern musical instruments use electricity to play
traditional musical instruments are made locally while most modern musical instruments are imported from other countries
traditional musical instruments are cheap while modern musical instruments are expensive to buy

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN COSTING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

amount of materials used
time spent in making the musical instruments
attractiveness of the finished musical instruments
age group meant for the musical instruments
availability of the musical instruments
availability of the musical instruments
quality of the musical instruments
cost of materials, if the materials for making the musical instruments were bought
demand for the musical instruments

TYPES OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

There are two main types of musical instruments
These are:

tuned musical instruments
untuned musical instruments

Tuned musical instruments such as the banjo produce different pitches

More examples of tuned instruments:

guitar
piano
accordion
flute

Untuned musical instruments such as chisekese produce a fixed pitch. More examples of untuned musical instruments:

woodblocks
rasp (nkhwende)
maracas (maseche)
badza
drum
rattles
mangolongondo (xylophones)
horn (chitoliro)/bat
panpipe
kalimba
mkangala
bangwe/mbila

Musical instruments can be sold and generate income.
However, the making of musical instruments can have a negative impact on the environment.
The excessive use of trees without replacing them can lead to deforestation, siltation in rivers and degradation of the land (land degradation).
Therefore there is need to replace the natural resources like trees to ensure sustainability of the resources.

How Musical Instruments are Played

Musical instruments can be played by:

plucking
beating
blowing
stroking
pressing
shaking

The other group of musical instruments is called body percussion. Body percussion is the use of the body in various ways

The body can produce sound by:

clapping hands
snapping fingers
slapping body parts such as thighs, chest and cheeks
tapping feet on the floor
whistling
ululating
Clicking the tongue against the roof of the mouth The Malawian society performs a lot of cultural dances.

Occasions When Dances Are Performed

Festivals
Funeral ceremonies
Weddings
Installation of chiefs
Initiation ceremonies

Significance of the Dances

they promote identity of an ethnic group
they help in disseminating important messages
they promote one’s culture
they promote oneness
they promote obedience
they promote respect
certain dances are believed to make rain fall, improve the harvest or awaken the spirits of the dead

LOCAL DANCES

Local dances are traditional dances that are performed in the communities.

Cultural values depicted in traditional dances

Respect
Obedience
Tolerance
Modesty
Patriotism
Love
Reliability
Honour
Oneness
Trust

LOCAL DANCES IN MALAWI

CHILIMIKA

Chilimika means year
This dance is performed mostly by young Tonga women of Nkhatabay District.
At each New Year's Day, young men and women congregate at the village arena to entertain the village with Chilimika.
This dance is an imitation of Malipenga which is mostly performed by men.

GULE WAMKULU

Gulewamkulu is also known as "the Great Dance".
Gulewamkulu is performed at the request of the village headman on the occasion of funerals of village members, puberty initiations and the installation of chiefs.
It is performed by Chewa men.

LIKHUBA

Likhuba is a dance performed to cure psychological illness by women.
It is largely an acrobatic demonstration of male prowess by the Sena of Lower Shire. These days the dance is performed for entertainment.

TCHOPA/SOOPA

Tchopa or Soopa was originally performed by the Lomwe during tribal wars as well as sacrificial ceremonies when a calamity had struck.
Tchopa is popular in Thyolo, Mulanje and Chiradzulu Districts. It is mostly performed for entertainment.

UYENI

Uyeni is a Ngoni dance usually for girls who dance bare foot with their breasts exposed. It is mostly performed during the installation of chiefs.

MWINOGHE

In the Chisukwa dialect, the word mwinoghe literally means "let us enjoy ourselves thoroughly". Mwinoghe is an instrumental dance that is popular among people especially school children in Chitipa District of the Northern Region of Malawi.
It has been derived from a ceremonial dance of Karonga District called Indingala which was originally performed by men brandishing fly-whisks during either the enthrallment of a chief or feast over a dead marauding lion.
The main percussion instruments used in the dance are one big drum called Ing'ina and two small ones called Twana, but sometimes a whistle is used.
The dancers line up in two straight lines, boys on one side and an equal number of girls on the other, facing one another. While the girls continue dancing in a standing position with their hands raised up, the boys squat down wriggling and twisting their bodies, all to the rhythm of the instruments.
Mwinoghe is therefore a cerebration dance

MANGANJE

Manganje is an initiation dance performed by the Yao of Machinga, Mangochi, Zomba and Blantyre Districts.
It is performed at the initiation of boys.
Today Manganje is also performed for entertainment.

MALIPENGA

Malipenga is a modern dance for men.
Malipenga started in Nkhatabay District and spread all over the Northern Region of Malawi.
In the central region, Mganda, which is a variant of Malipenga is performed in Kasungu, Nkhotakota, Salima, Ntchisi, Dowa and Lilongwe Districts.

Occasions When Local Dances are Performed

Festivals
Funeral ceremonies
Weddings
Installation of chiefs
Initiation ceremonies

CONTEMPORARY DANCING STYLES

Most of the Malawian traditional dances have cultural values and a history.
However, most of Malawians, particularly the youth, do not participate in these cultural dances.

DANCES DEPICTING CULTURAL VALUES

Some dances that depict cultural values are as follows:

Gulewamkulu
Beni
Tchopa
Chinamwali
Chitelera
Chisamba

Reasons for Youth Not to Participate in Traditional Dances

They look at them as outdated
They look at them as boring
They look at them as out of fashion

Malawi is also flooded with a lot of contemporary dances.
However, traditional dancing styles can be combined with contemporary dancing styles to improve the performance.

The disadvantages of mixing traditional dancing styles with contemporary dancing styles are that:

Local dances can lose their cultural significance
Cultural values can be diluted
The youth can shun local dances altogether
Local dances can lose their identity

Some Contemporary Dances

Reggae
Kwasakwasa
Ndombolo
Kwaito
Digong

Contemporary Dancing Styles

Kwasakwasa involves a lot of waist wriggling
Kwaito has flexible and quick foot movements.

These foreign dancing styles have influenced the way people perform the local dances.
The people combine the foreign dancing styles with the original styles with the original styles to improve their performance.

SELF EXPRESSION THROUGH POSTERS, DANCES, SONGS AND PLAYS

Posters on Various Themes
Posters are useful in the dissemination of information on a cross-cutting issues

Qualities of Good Posters

Should look attractive
Should be coloured
Words should be bold
Information should be brief
Information should be clear

Importance of Posters

They can be used for advertising the businesses
Self-made posters can be sold to generate income
They are cheap to produce locally

Materials for Making Posters

Chart paper
Lead pencils
Coloured pencils
Crayons
Marker pens
Paint brushes
Rubbers
Local paints
Old cement bags

CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

Cross-cutting issues are challenges that affect many people and cause great concerns

Examples of Cross-Cutting Issues

HIV and AIDS
Environmental degradation
Pollution
Corruption
Violation of human rights
Democracy

Dances on Cross–Cutting Issues

The school can perform dances where songs contain messages on issues concerned.
The dances and songs are a form of entertainment to draw people’s attention as they listen to messages.

Songs on Cross-Cutting Issues

Songs, like dances, play an important role in conveying messages on cross- cutting issues
Singing and dancing together offer entertainment to motivate the target audience while receiving messages by passed on

Plays on Cross-Cutting Issues

The messages on cross-cutting issues are easily passed on to an audience through plays.
A play is a form entertainment intended to attract the attention of the audience while the messages are passed on.

THEMES ON VARIOUS CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

Some of the themes can be on:

Child marriages

Child abuse
Wife buttering
Prevention of HIV and AIDS
Wanton cutting down of trees
Use of dangerous chemicals

ARTISTIC SKILLS AND MOVEMENTS

Most of the activities that we do require movements These movements require skills
A skill is a talent that an individual shows when doing something. Most of the skills that individuals have are either learned or inborn. There are various artistic activities that are popular these days These are known as contemporary artistic activities
The common examples of artistic activities are songs and dances.
Various materials found in the local environment can be used for artistic activities

Items for Artistic Activities

Every individual has skills that are either acquired or inborn.
Possessing these skills is very important because individuals that possess them often become successful in whatever they do.
The production of posters, carvings, models, woven items and knitted items require these skills.

Making Posters

Posters on Various Themes
Posters are useful in the dissemination of information on a cross-cutting issues

Qualities/characteristics of Good Posters

Should look attractive
Should be coloured
Words should be bold
Information should be brief
Information should be clear

Importance of Posters

Can be used for advertising your business
Self-made posters can be sold to generate income
It is cheap to produce locally

Materials for Making Posters

Chart paper
Lead pencils
Coloured pencils
Crayons
Marker pens
Paint brushes
Rubbers
Local paints
Old cement bags

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING A POSTER

Have a plain sheet of paper or cement bag or white polythene sack
Draw a margin throughout along the length and breadth of the paper
Make a sketch of what you want to draw using pencil
Use different colours to mark the outline
Write the heading of the poster inside the margin

Carving Artistic Items

Wooden spoon
Wooden cooking stick
Axe handle
Hoe handle
Statue

Materials for Carving

Wood
Soapstone
Glue
Glass paper
Water paper
Axes
Panga knives
Machete
Saws
Gouges
Chisels

Rasps
Mallets
Scrapers
Adzes
Stones
Hammers

Forms of Carvings

Abstract carvings
Stylish carvings
Naturalistic carvings

Characteristics of each type of carvings

Abstract carvings

Abstract carving does not have a definite form
It can be interpreted differently by different people

Stylish carvings

Stylish carving has a definite form
However, some parts are exaggerated deliberately
For example, a carving of a person with a protruding chin

Naturalistic carvings

Naturalistic carving has a form which looks definite or real

Modelling

Materials for Modelling Various Items

Glass
Pieces of wire
Cartons
Sisal
clay soil
grass
papers

Items that can be Modelled

aeroplanes
cars
animals
people
train
surrounding
house

Weaving

Weaving is the interlocking of warps and wefts.

The warp is the set of strands which are laid across the loom at the beginning of weaving.

The weft is the pattern of strands woven in and out of the warp.

Types of weave

check weave
twill weave

Check weave

This interlocking follows a given pattern of:
Row 1: Over 1 under 1 over 1 under 1 – continue
Row 2: Under 1 over 1 under 1 over 1 – continue After line B repeat from line A to form a check weave.

Twill weave

Row 1: under 1 over 2 under 2 over 2 under 2
Row 2: over 2 under 2 over 2 under 2 over 2
Row 3: over 1 under 2 over 2 under 2 under 2
Row 4: under 2 over 2 under 2 over 2 under 2
After row 4, continue by repeating row 1. This produces a twilled or diagonal weave.

Materials for Weaving Various Artistic Items

palm leaves
bamboo leaves
pieces of reed
sisal
grass
creeping stems
knives
razor blades
needles

Produce from weaving

mats
baskets
chairs
brooms
shopping bags
school bags

Knitting

Materials for Knitting Various Artistic Items

sisal
yarn/thread
cloth
needles
bamboo sticks
bicycle spokes

Basic knitting stitches

There are two basic knitting stitches:

knit stitch
purl stitch

All patterns are formed based on variations of these two stitches

Patterns of Stitches

garter stitch

This stitch can be used in making knitted belt, scarfs or baby blankets

stocking stitch

This stitch is often used to knit stockings and pencil bags

moss stitch

This stitch is a combination of knit and purl stitches done in the same row

rib stitch

This stitch forms the border of many knitted garments’ edges such as the sleeves, necklines and the edges

Knitting Abbreviations

K	=	knit
P	=	purl
Rep	=	repeat
Sts	=	stitches
Wfd	=	wool forward
St	=	stocking stitch
Alt	=	alternate/alternative
Psso	=	pass slip stitch over

Products Made from Knitting

belts
scarfs
baby blankets
stockings
pencil bags
cardigans

CHALLENGES THAT ARTISTS FACE

inadequate resources
lack of exposure
inability to market products
jealousy

SOLUTIONS TO THE CHALLENGES THAT ARTISTS FACE

using renewable resources
buying resources
replacing used resources
inviting people through advertising
improving quality of products
consulting and talking to interested persons

CONTEMPORARY ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES

Contemporary means something which is modern, current or in fashion.
Music and dance are some of the activities that have examples of contemporary experiences. There are dancing styles which are popular in both religious and ordinary circles.
Some of the contemporary African music and dance styles include kwasakwasa, ndombolo, digong and kwaito.
Contemporary music and dancing styles that originated from outside Africa, but are performed in Malawi include hip hop, R and B and reggae. These are gradually becoming part of our culture because many of young people like them.
In the past, popular dancing styles included simanjemanje, sinjonjo and tsabatsaba from within Africa while break dance, twist and scanky were styles from the West. Some of these dancing styles are still popular such as break dance.

THE BENEFITS OF PERFORMING ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES

Development of skills in self expression
Promoting social interaction and cooperation

They allow for deep self expression
Development of self-reliance and collaboration
Development of reasoning and creative thinking
Development of motivation, concentration and teamwork
Promoting interpersonal skills
Being awarded with some prizes after performing

ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES THAT CAN BE PERFORMED FOR COMPETITION

Drama
Dancing
Sports
Singing
Poetry
Comedies
Plays

SELF EXPRESSION

There are many ways in which individuals express feelings through music.
One most common feeling expressed through music is an expression of joy or happiness.
It is possible for the composer to create a mood of the song – to make it sound jovial or sad. There are symbols that one may use when composing song.
These are called music notations
Good and quality musical sound is a result of good voice production.
Good voice production comes through practice of a number of musical related exercise. There are many activities we can do continuously to develop good voice production Some of the exercises that one can do are as follows:

Open the mouth wide enough to insert two fingers side by side in the mouth

- This involves control of jaws rather than the lips alone.

Take a deep breath and say or sing oooooo, uuuuuuuu and aaaaaaa – repeat this several times.

Diction is the articulation of words clearly
When singing one conveys a message. Therefore, there is need to say the words clearly so that the message is clear.

RECORDING SONGS

Recording a song can be done at:

The musical studio
In the homes

Recording a song should be done in an appropriate place or room that is free from noise and wind
Record the song several times to get the right quality that is required

The procedure for composing songs

Step 1 Think about the message you want to convey in the songs Step 2 Identify the target audience
Step 3 What mood of the song do you want to convey your message through? Step 4 Identify a tune for your song
Step 5 Find words to the tune of your song (consider things such a rhymes in your words of the time, just like in poetry)

Composing Instrumental Music

Composing instrumental music involves musical instrument without words. This can be done by playing one instrument or many instruments combined.
The most important factor to consider for instrumental music is to create room for each instrument to be heard clearly.
There has to be times where one instrument is played louder than the rest.
One can also use handclapping, tongue, clicking, finger snapping as musical instruments besides the drums and other musical instruments.
However avoid overcrowding the song with instruments.

Skills for Professional Sporting Careers

A skill can be defined as a way to do something

Identifying various sporting careers

Football
Netball
Volleyball
Basketball
Coaching
Tennis
Boxing
Athletics

Various Skills in sporting careers

Football

Punting
Scoring
Attacking
Defending
Marking
Dribbling
Heading
Agility
Jumping
shooting
Balancing
Communication
Positioning
Saving (goalkeeper)
Throwing
Controlling the ball
Passing
Running
Decision making
Leadership
Composure
Vision
Intelligence
Resistance
Power
Strength
Stamina
Sprinting
Pace

Netball

Attacking
Defending
Catching
Throwing
Scoring
Dodging
Shooting

Volleyball

Serving
Blocking
Digging
Passing
Spiking

Basketball

Dodging
Dribbling
Shooting

Boxing

Jabbing

PLAYS FOR THE PUBLIC PERFOMANCE

When writing plays for the public performance the playwright should consider the audience first. The target audience will determine the theme and characters to be in the play.

For example, if one is writing for the school going youth, the basic idea should suit the age and type of students.

Likewise when one is writing for the community, one should have a picture of what kind of community it is, what are its likes and dislikes, what are the people’s beliefs and educational levels
Therefore, factors to consider when writing a play for public performance are:
® Target audience
® People’s beliefs
® Educational levels
® Likes
® Dislikes
® Cultural background
® Age

Whatever audience you are writing for, ensure that there is a theme (the basic idea you want to pass), a realistic plot (story line) and characters (people in the play).
When acting out, make sure you create a conflict.
The audience should be kept in suspense up to the end, but towards the end the audience should see the climax and get resolutions of the climax.
A climax is the point of the story at which the interest is highest.
This comes somewhere near the end and after this there are resolutions.

Drawing Pictures for Sale

Drawing is a means of expressing and communicating one’s feelings. Drawing is an arrangement or organisation of lines to make basic shapes. The drawings may be two dimensional or three dimensional.

Examples of Two Dimensional Drawings

Circles
Ovals
Rectangles
Squares

Parallelograms
Quadrilaterals

Examples of Three Dimensional Drawings

Eggs
Boxes
Tables
Houses
Animals
Human figures
Dice
Cubes

Some of these may be traced using paper, transparent plastic sheets and perforated picture outlines.

Three dimensional drawings can be formed by shading the two dimensional drawings. Shading makes them look solid.
Drawings or pictures for sale should look attractive.
In order to achieve this, painting or colouring is done to add beauty. After colouring, the items can be given costs, advertised and sold.

Factors to Consider When Costing

Quality
Quantity
Durability
Demand
Supply

Importance of Advertising

® It helps to increase sales
® It helps producers to know their competitors and plan accordingly to meet up the level of competition
® It helps in making people aware of the new product
® It helps creating goodwill for the company and gains customer loyalty after reaching a mature age
® It helps educating people
® It helps people find the best products for themselves

ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES FOR ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT

Activities such as making the costumes and drama performances can be a source of income.
The production of costumes for various activities requires the identification of suitable materials, taking of appropriate body measurements and cutting out of suitable patterns.

Materials for Making Different Costumes and Sports attire

Cloth/fabric
Sewing needle
Sewing thread
Pairs of scissors
Razor blades

Taking Body Measurements

Body measurements can be taken from:

The waist

Measure at your waist under the hip bone

Hips

Start at the hip level on one side, then capture the middle of the groin before wrapping around the opposite side

Chest

Wrap the tape high under the armpits around to the front of the chest

Thighs

Measure at the highest point of the thigh, under the pubic bone

Calves

Measure at the thickest point of the calf, typically half way between the knee and the ankle

Upper arm

Wrap the tape measure around the biceps half way between the armpit and the fold of the elbow

Shoulder

Measure the shoulder line from the back

Importance of Taking Body Measurements

It determines the size of the fabric to be bought
It also tells the size of the costume to be made
It avoids wastages of materials
It avoids wastage of money

SELF EXPRESSION THROUGH ART

Expression and communication can be done in various ways.
It can be done through speaking, writing, gestures and artefacts.
The communication without speaking is called non-verbal communication.

Making Different Items

Different items can be done in different ways.

Making Hunting Tools

The following are tools for hunting:-

Spears
Bows
Arrows
Clubs
Catapults
Guns

Some of the hunting tools are made by carving. For example, clubs

Decorating Items

The following are methods of decorating hunting tools:-

Tattooing
Burning
Stamping

Clay work, like pots and flower pot holders can be decorated by:-

Tattooing
Incising or engraving
Stamping or impressing
Polishing or burning
Colouring or staining
Coiling

Body Shapes and Movements

Different body movements can convey specific messages.

For example. A person might use a wave rather than saying “hello”. Or nod their head in agreement, which may mean “yes”.
The body movements can be useful in expression and communication because they are a quick way to convey thoughts and feelings without speaking or writing.
The identification of the messages to be expressed and communicated by the body movements is important in every social setting.
This is so because it enhances cooperation and a caring spirit among the members of the community.

Feelings and Ideas which can be Expressed and Communicated through Body Movements

Sadness
Happiness
Hunger
Sorrow
Farewell
Invitation
Denial
Consent/agreement
Welcome

Drawing Pictures

Drawing is a means of expression and communication which uses visual images to pass on information to the reader.
The drawings can contain a lot of information as much as writing. Pictures convey messages quicker than writing.

Materials for Drawing Pictures

Pencils
Papers
Charts
Paint
Crayons

ARTISTIC PERFORMANCE

Items to Meet Personal and Community Needs
Different people need different items in their lives.
Some of the items can be purchased from shops while others can be made.
Producing your own items can help you to cut down the costs which you could have made in the course of purchasing the items (save money)
On the other hand, producing items to meet other people’s needs becomes a source of income to the producer.
Some of the items that one can make are garments, household items and safety equipment.

Plaiting different Items

Plaiting is weaving strands of hair, rope and so forth together to make a plait. Plaiting is the interlocking of three or more strands.
Three strands can be used for making ropes for table mats or tying goats and mesh for hair. More strands can be used for making mats.

Resources Required for Plaiting Different Items

Sisal fibre
Reed
Palm leaves
Pieces of bamboo
Bark fibre
Pieces of string
Pieces of cloth
Animal skin
Strips from old tyres

Produce from Plaiting

Baskets
Table mats
Door mats
Ropes/strings
Mesh hair
Bags

Procedure for plaiting strings and ropes

Take two strands.
Using the second strand, coil one end in the middle of the strand
Twist the right strand in between the other strands, then the left strand in between the other strands to make the rope.

RISKS IN USING EQUIPMENT

The table below shows sources of risks in various sporting and artistic activities

ACTIVITY	SOURCE OF RISKS
Weaving	Equipment such as bamboos and chisongole
Knitting	Equipment such as knitting needles
Sewing	Equipment such as sewing needles and pressing iron
Carving	Tools such as adzes (kasemasema)
Athletics: track events (running activities. For example, relay race and cross country)	Small running lanes, stones, litter, sharp objects, bricks, rough surfaces, lack of warm up and cool down activities
Athletics (throwing events) for example, javelin, discus, shot put	Poor condition of equipment, poor handling of equipment and slippery and rough surfaces
Ball games	Sports surfaces in poor conditions, lack of warm up and cool down activities, wrong pressure and size of balls, poor condition of balls

Strategies for Reducing Risks

Doing warm ups and cool downs
Thrower should always be in front of others
Clear the area where the activity will be done
Always use equipment that is in good condition
Store and keep equipment safely after use to prevent wrong use
Proper handling of sharp tools, for example, needles
Wearing a thimble when sewing
Proper sharpening of tools
Splitting and processing bamboos with care in weaving

The table below shows strategies that can be used to reduce risks

ACTIVITY	RISKS	STRATEGY THAT CAN BE USED TO REDUCE RISKS
Playing ball games	Getting fractures, cuts and scratches	Referee should control the game Referee should give penalties for bad play Plant grass on bare ground Remove anthills and stones from the ground Fill ditches and holes on the ground
	Ball hitting players	Cut all grass for the balls to run smoothly Goalkeepers wearing protective wear Make the ground flat
	Players hitting each other	- Strictly observe the rules of the game
Sewing	Needle pricking ones finger	- Use a thimble to protect the middle finger when sewing
	Needle pins piercing others or oneself	Put pins or needles on a pin cushion Point the needle towards your own body when sewing
	Cutting oneself or others	Cut away from others Handle scissors or razor blades properly
	Burning oneself or others	Put pressing iron on a stand after every pressing Remove charcoal after use Switch off and plug off the electric iron after use Proper storage
Athletics	Hitting one another due to bunching (many people being together without enough personal and general space)	All races of one lap for example: 100m, 200m should be run in lanes Runners should be well spaced and limited in number Obey the rules
Athletics	Collapsing	Breathe through the nose when running Do cool down activities
Carving	Getting cuts or tears	Sharpen equipment away from your body Place tools in safe places Hold tools firmly when sharpening them Avoid cutting close to where you are holding the object being carved

The table below shows some of safe practices in different activities

ACTIVITY	SAFE PRACTICES
Javelin	Walk with the javelin in vertical position to the playing field Put a cork or a protective cloth on both ends of the javelin when not in use
Discus	- Use discus without cracks and worn out reams -Create adequate space between thrower and others
The shot	- Hold the shot with a firm grip
Jumping events	- Have a soft landing area
Athletics	Adequate preparation Use lanes when running Ensure learners (runners) are well spaced in races of more than one lap Count all learners (runners) before and after long runs Provide transport behind the runners in long distance running
Basketball	- Minimise contacts among players
Netball	Observe rules of the game Umpires should ensure fair play
Volleyball	Playing field should be dry Use approved balls Avoid treading on the ball Spikes should be empty part of the court
Field hockey	Cut grass on the pitch Provide goalkeepers with protective clothing Use sticks that are in good condition
Football (soccer)	Avoid dangerous play Referees should be strict in the game Cut grass on the field of play Ensure the field is free of risks
Gymnastics	Use clothing that allows free movement Proper supervision of the activities Give activities according to the age of the learners
Singing	-Avoid singing on top of ones voice for a long time to avoid straining vocal chords which may lead to bruises -Have a bottle of water to sip at intervals to soften the vocal chords
Dancing	-Dances that are vigorous require enough training to avoid muscle pains and cramps
Drama	-Thorough practice before actual performances, especially those performances that require vigorous body movements -Sharp objects to be used should be improvised -Equipment that is not used should be removed from the stage to avoid bumping into them

MARKETING SKILLS

It is important that schools help the learners develop marketing skills. These skills will help them become self-reliant in future.

Importance of Marketing

It ensures that the articles are made for a purpose and benefit
It increases profit from the sales of the articles made

Processes in marketing

Carrying out a research (to identify potential customers)
Costing the items
Displaying the items
Advertising
Selling

Importance of Carrying out a Market Research

To understand what people’s likes are
To discover where particular artefacts are popular
To convince people that they will not regret after buying the artefacts

Marketing Skills

Carrying out a research
Costing the artefacts
Displaying them
Advertising them

GLOSSARY

Act (v) = to perform a part in a play or film
Actor (n) = a person who acts on the stage, on TV or in films
Aerobics = vigorous physical exercise done in order to increase the amount of oxygen taken into the body Agile (v) = able to move quickly and easily; active
Art = the expression of human creative talent, especially in a natural form Attack = kill
Audience (n) = a group of people who have gathered together to hear or watch somebody or something
Banjo = a musical instrument with a long neck and a round body. It has four or more strings that are played with the fingers.
Breadth (n) = the distance or measurement from side to side; width Burn (n) = a mark caused by fire
Burnish (v) = to make metal smooth and shiny by rubbing; to polish something Carve (v) to form something by cutting away material from wood or stone Carve = to cut solid material in order to form something
Carve = to write something by cutting on a surface Carving (n) = a carved object, especially a work of art Cast (n) = all the actors in a play, etc.
Cast (v) = (in knitting) to put the first line of stitches on a needle Cast (v) = to choose actors to play parts in a play, film, etc.
Cast (v) = to give somebody a part in a play, etc. Check = a pattern of small squares
Chikule = red soil Chiziro = black soil
Coil (v) = round something up, to wind or twist oneself or something round and round in circles or loops Collage = a form of art in which pieces of paper, cloth, photographs, etc. are arranged and stuck to a surface Colour (v) = to put colour on something, for example, with coloured pencils, paint, etc.
Colouring (n) = the action of putting colour of something
Composure = ability to control the game at any critical situation in the match Contemporary (adj) = of the present time; modern; of the latest time; new Costume (n) = clothes worn by actors during a play

Decision making = determine in advance what to do Depth (n) = the distance from the front to the back Depth (n) = the distance from the top down
Dimension (n) = a measurement of any sort, for example, breadth, length, thickness, height, and so forth Dimensional (adj) = having the specified number of dimensions
Draw (v) = to make pictures or a picture of something, with, for example, a pencil or chalk but not paint
Effects (n) an impression created in the mind of a spectator, reader, etc. while watching a play, listening to music or looking at a painting
Engrave (v) = to cut or carve words, designs, etc. on a hard surface Flexible (adj) = that can bend easily without breaking
Fret = each of the bars or ridges on the neck of a guitar or similar instrument, used as a guide for the finger to press the strings at the correct place.
Gluten (n) = a sticky substance that is left when starch is removed from flour
Groin (n) = the groin is the junctional area between the abdomen and the thigh on either side of the pubic bone
Groin (anatomy) = the part of the body where the tops of the legs meet, containing the sexual organs Guitar = a musical instrument with, usually, six strings which is played with the fingers or a plectrum Height (n) = the measurement from the bottom to the top of a person or thing
Hem (n) = the edge of a piece of cloth which has been turned under and sewn Impression (n) = a mark left by pressing an object hard into a surface
Incise (v) = to cut words, designs, etc. into a surface Intelligence = game understanding
Interlock = to fasten or to be fastened firmly so as not to come apart accidentally Kalimba = a type of African thumb piano
Knit = to make garments, etc. by creating rows of connecting loops of, especially, wool thread, using long metal, plastic or wooden needles
Leadership = able to guide the youngsters in the field and be able to motivate and inspire others Length (n) = the amount something measures or extends from one end to the other
Lighting (n) = equipment for providing light for a room, building Lighting (n) = the arrangement or effect of lights
Loom = a machine for weaving cloth

Make up (v) = to put powder, lipstick, etc. on the face to make it more attractive or to prepare it for an appearance in the theatre, on TV, etc.
Model (n) = a representation of something, usually smaller than the original Outline (n) = a line or lines indicating the shape or outer edge of something Outline (n) = to draw or mark the outer edge of something
Pace = to set the rate or speed at which something happens or develops
Percussion = musical instruments that are played by striking, beating or tapping with a stick, etc., for example, drums
Perforate (v) = to make a hole or holes through something
Piano = a large musical instrument played by pressing the black or white keys of a keyboard. Plait (v) = to weave strands of hair, rope, etc. together to make a plait.
Plaiting = the art of twisting fibre into ropes.
Plectrum = a small piece of metal, wood, plastic or bone used for plucking the strings of a guitar or similar instruments.
Polish (v) = to make something smooth and shiny by rubbing, especially after first putting on a special substance to produce this result
Props (n) (also property) = a movable object used on a theatre stage, in a film, etc.
Punt (v) to kick a football after it has dropped from the hands and before it reaches the ground Purl (also purl stitch) (n) = a stitch in knitting that produces ridges on the upper side
Purl (v) = to knit something in purl stitch Rasp = an unpleasant harsh sound
Scene (n) = a place represented on a stage of a theatre
Scenery (n) = painted background used to represent natural features or buildings, and so forth Scenery (n) = the natural features of an area, for example, mountains, valleys, rivers and forests Seam = a line along which two edges of cloth, etc. are joined or sewn together
Set (n) = a stage or place where a play or film is performed Set (n) = the scenery used for a play, film, and so forth
Setting (n) = the place and time at which a play, novel, etc. is set
Setting = used to receive a teammate’s pass in order that the play may continue by passing the ball overhead to an attacker
Sew = to make stitches in a cloth with a needle and thread Skill (n) = the ability to do something well

Solid (n) = (geometry) having three dimensions i.e. length, width and thickness Spiking = striking
Stain (v) = to leave or make coloured patches or dirty marks on something, especially ones that are difficult to remove
Stamp (v) = to print the date, letters, a design, etc. on paper, cloth or some other surface Stamping (n) = a design, words, etc. made by stamping something into a surface Strength = to resist tackles
Strip = a long piece of something i.e. a strip of paper
Stroke (v) = move one’s hand with gentle pressure over (a surface) Style = manner of doing, performing, or presenting something Talent = a natural skill or ability at something
Talent = a person or people with natural skill or ability
Tattoo (noun) = a picture or pattern on a person’s skin made by making small holes in it and filling them with coloured dye
Tattoo (verb) = to mark somebody’s skin with a tattoo
Thick (n) = having a relatively great distance between opposite surfaces or side
Three dimensional (adj) = having or appearing to have or relating to the dimensions of length, width and depth
Thumb piano (n) = any of various musical instruments, mainly of African origin, made from strips of metal fastened to a resonator and played by plucking with the fingers and thumbs
Trace (v) = to copy a map, drawing, etc. by drawing on transparent paper placed on it Twill = a fabric so woven as to have a surface of diagonal parallel ridges
Two dimensional (adj) = have dimensions of height and width only
Two dimensional (adj) = having or appearing to have length and breadth but no depth
Vision = ability to see build-up play ahead to others or ability to see a pass or awareness of players around you
Warp = (in knitting) the threads on a loom over and under which other threads (the weft or woof) are passed to make cloth
Weave = to make fabric, etc. by passing threads or strips across, over and under other ones, by hand or on a machine called a loom
Weft = the threads woven across, over and under the threads lying on the loom Wriggle = to twist and turn with quick short movements
NB: n = noun, v = verb, adj = adjective

REFERENCES

MIE, Standard 7 Expressive Arts Teachers’ guide (2008) MOEST,
IPTE through ODL Expressive Arts Module 1 MOEST,
IPTE through Conventional Expressive Arts Book Advanced Oxford Dictionary
Wikipedia:WikiAfrican/incubator/stubs/dance_in_Malawi
www.ezstoragenow.com/how-to-properlystoreartwork
www.managementstudy.com/objectives-importance-of-advertising

UNIT 1 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
UNIT 2 THE EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE
UNIT 3 THE EARLY MISSIONARIES IN MALAWI
UNIT 4 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF AFRICA
UNIT 5 WORK AND MONEY
UNIT 6 COMPANIES AND INDUSTRIES
UNIT 7 THE CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF AFRICA
UNIT 8 THE CENTRES OF EARLY CIVILISATION
UNIT 9 SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT
UNIT 10 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
UNIT 11 DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT
UNIT 12 HIV AND AIDS
UNIT 13 TOURISM
UNIT 14 NATURAL DISASTERS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
UNIT 15 THE POPULATION COMPOSITION OF AFRICA
UNIT 16 POPULATION CHANGE IN AFRICA
UNIT 17 THE EARLY EXPLORERS OF AFRICA
UNIT 18 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
UNIT 19 SAFETY
UNIT 20 CIVIL WARS AND PEACEFUL CONFLICT RESOLUTION
UNIT 21 AIR
UNIT 22 THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
UNIT 23 MORAL VALUES

UNIT 1 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES

Latitudes are imaginary lines which run horizontally across the earth's surface.
Longitudes are vertical lines measured at an angular distance east or west of the prime meridian.

MAJOR LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
The earth is round like a ball.
It is covered by imaginary lines evenly-spaced and running vertically and horizontally. These lines are called latitudes and longitudes.
Latitudes and longitudes are measured in degrees.

MAJOR LATITUDES
The most important lines of latitudes are

the equator (00)
the tropic of cancer (23½0N)
the tropic of Capricorn (23½0S)
the arctic circle (66½0N)
the Antarctic circle (66½0S) Latitudes are also called parallels

MAJOR LONGITUDES
The prime meridian is one of the important longitudes The prime meridian is also called the Greenwich meridian Longitudes are also known as meridians
They meet at the poles

IMPORTANCE OF LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES

they help in locating places
they help in locating a country
they help in locating physical features
longitudes help in calculating time for a place

Places east of any longitudes see the sun earlier than those west of the longitudes

UNIT 2 THE EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE

Slave trade is buying and selling of people.
A slave is a person who is owned by another person.

THE CAUSES OF EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE

Arabs wanted cheap labourers to work in their plantations in Zanzibar and coastal areas in East Africa.
Other people wanted slaves to work in their homes as cooks and ground labourers in East Africa, Arab countries and India.

GROUPS OF PEOPLE INVOLVED IN THE EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE

Arabs from the Middle East
the Swahili from East Africa
Jumbe from Malawi
Mlozi from Malawi
the Yao from Malawi
the Bisa from Zambia
the Bemba from Zambia
Chikunda of Zambia
the Nyamwezi in Tanzania

WHY DID CENTRAL AFRICA GET INVOLVED IN THE SLAVE TRADE

The Yao traders - Mlozi in Karonga and Jumbe in Nkhotakota wanted slaves in Malawi to sell them to Arabs on the east coast
The Yao caught slaves in the South of Malawi to sell them to the Arabs on the East Coast
The Nyamwezi of Tanzania, the Bisa, Bemba and the Chikunda of Zambia were the other tribes who were involved in the slave trade

METHODS OF OBTAINING SLAVES

raiding
selling

THE EFFECTS OF THE EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE

villages were destroyed
some African chieftainships were destroyed
guns and gun powder were introduced into the African society
many areas in Africa became depopulated
many slaves died on the way because of ill-treatment
the Africans lost their identity and were treated as inferiors

THE ABOLITION OF THE SLAVE TRADE
The British Government made several attempts from the 19th Century to persuade the Sultan of Oman to limit slave trading activities, and finally, put a stop to it.

In 1873, the British Government successfully persuaded Sultan Burghash of Zanzibar to stop the slave trade. Consequently, the Zanzibar slave market, the biggest in East Africa, was closed down.

In Malawi, the slave trade stopped because of the efforts that Sir Harry Johnston made. He made a treaty with Jumbe III to give up his slave trading activities in return for payment equivalent to K200 per annum. In the south and north of Malawi, the British Government had to fight with the Yao chiefs and Mlozi respectively.

In Zambia, the British Government made a treaty with Lewanika of the Lozi in 1897 to stop the giving of slaves as a tribute to the chiefs, and to stop slave raiding. In 1906, domestic slavery was abolished and this marked the end of slave trade there.

UNIT 3 THE EARLY MISSIONARIES IN MALAWI

There were several missionaries who came to Malawi. These include:

the Universities Mission to Central Africa (UMCA)
the Scottish Missionaries
the Dutch Reformed Church Mission (DRCM)
the Catholic Missions
the Independent African Churches
Islam

THE WORK OF EARLY MISSIONARIES IN MALAWI

The Universities Mission to Central Africa

The Universities Mission to Central Africa came to Malawi to answer the call made by Dr David Livingstone.

REASONS WHY THE UMCA came to Malawi

to spread Christianity
to replace the slave trade with good and authorised trade

The UMCA was established under the leadership of Bishop Mackenzie in 1861. Its first mission was established at Magomero in Chiradzulu.
Magomero was chosen because it was one of the centres where there were a lot of slave trading activities.

In 1863, the mission moved to Zanzibar in Tanzania under the leadership of Bishop Tozer. This was because the missionaries were attacked by malaria and unfriendly Yao traders.

Later, in 1885, the UMCA returned to Nyasaland and opened the mission station at Likoma. OTHER MISSION STATIONS OF THE UMCA

Nkhotakota
Likwenu in Machinga
Malindi in Mangochi

A map of Malawi showing the location of the UMCA mission stations

THE SCOTTISH MISSIONARIES

The Scottish Missionaries of the Church of Scotland and the Free Church of Scotland came to Malawi through the influence of Dr David Livingstone's work.
The Scottish Missionaries originated from Scotland.
The missions were in two groups and established their stations in Blantyre and Livingstonia

BLANTYRE MISSION
The Blantyre Mission was established in Kapeni's area in 1876 by the Church of Scotland. The first leader was Henry Henderson.

The area was chosen because:

it was the slave trade route
it had a cool climate
it had fertile soils for tropical plants such as tea and coffee
it was accessible to Zambezi through the Shire River

Henry Henderson was succeeded by Reverend Duff Macdonald, David Clement Scott and Alexander Hetherwick

THE LIVINGSTONIA MISSION
The Livingstonia Mission was established by the Free Church of Scotland in 1875 in Cape Maclear as the first mission station.

The first leaders were Captain Edward Young, James Stewart and Dr Robert Laws.

Cape Maclear was chosen because of the good harbour for the Illala I which was taken as a ship for the mission.
Robert Laws succeeded Edward Young and moved the mission to Bandawe in Nkhatabay in 1881. The Cape Maclear mission station was moved to Bandawe mission station because

the leaders were frequently attacked by malaria at Cape Maclear
there was a slave trade route at Cape Maclear and therefore the station was attacked by slave raiders
the population was too low at Cape Maclear

Bandawe was chosen because of the following reasons

the place was believed to be free from malaria attacks and slave raiders
it was close to the lake for easy transportation

The station was later moved from Bandawe to Khondowe, now known as Livingstonia, in 1882 because of the following reasons

cool weather on the plateau
freedom from malaria
good view of the lake

Blantyre and Livingstonia Missions were established in honour of Dr David Livingstone and they belong to the Church of Central African Presbyterian (CCAP)

Blantyre Mission Stations

Blantyre
Karonga
Ekwendeni
Laudon
Kasungu

A map of Malawi showing the location of the Scottish mission stations

Livingstonia Mission Stations

Cape Maclear
Bandawe
Khondowe (Livingstonia)

The Dutch Reformed Church Mission (DRCM)

Another group which was influenced by Robert Moffatt and Dr David Livingstone's work was from South Africa.
This was the Dutch Reformed Church. This group came to Malawi in 1888 under the leadership of Reverend Andrew C Murray.
In 1889, Reverend Teunis C Botha Vlok joined him. The two set their first station at Mvera in Dowa district.
In 1895, Reverend William Hope Murray succeeded Reverend Andrew Murray. He led the mission until his return to South Africa in 1937.
The mission station was moved from Mvera to Nkhoma in 1910 because of the following reasons

there were too many tsetse flies at Mvera
Nkhoma had good physical features which made the place look beautiful
Chief Mazengera, a Chewa chief, invited the missionaries to protect the Chewa from the Ngonis
Nkhoma was free from tsetse flies

A map of Malawi showing the location of the DRCM mission stations

OTHER DRCM MISSION STATIONS

Kongwe
Mlanda
Malingunde
Nkhoma

All these stations are under the Nkhoma Synod of the CCAP.

The Catholic Missions

Another group which had some influence of Dr David Livingstone's work were the Catholic Missions. These were in three groups.

The White Fathers

This was the first Roman Catholic Mission to come to Malawi. It began its work in 1889 by three priests.
These went to Chief Mponda in Mangochi. Their leader was Father Lechaptois, a Frenchman.
They later abandoned the place and went to Zambia in 1891 because Chief Mponda was a Moslem, a slave raider and was against Christianity.
The other team led by Father Guilleme came back from Zambia in 1901 and established a station at Chiwamba in Lilongwe. The mission was later moved to Likuni in 1903 because there were more people in Likuni.
Other white fathers arrived on the lakeshore and established a station at Mua in Dedza where a leprosarium was started in 1927.

The Montfort Fathers

This group came to Malawi in 1902. They established their first station and school at Nzama in Ntcheu. In 1903, they established another centre at Nguludi in Chiradzulu.

OTHER MISSION STATIONS WHICH WERE ESTABLISHED

Kachebere in Mchinji (1903)
Mtakataka in Dedza (1908)
Bembeke in Ntcheu (1910)
Kasina in Lilongwe (1925)
Nambuma in Dowa (1928)
Guilleme in Mchinji (1935)
Chiphaso in Kasungu (1935)
Mpherere (1939)
Mtendere in Dedza (1941)

Ludzi in Mchinji (1941)
Salima (1946)
Mlale in Blantyre (1951)

The White Sisters

The White Sisters came to Malawi in 1911. These were followed by the Grey Nuns.
In 1932, a printing press was set up at Bembeke but was later transferred to Likuni in 1949. In 1940, the missionary work expanded to the northern region.

A map of Malawi showing the location of the Roman Catholic mission stations

Independent African Churches

The Independent African Churches were established by Africans.
These were developed as a result of the work of the UMCA, Scottish Missions, the DRCM and the Roman Catholic Missions.

REASONS WHY THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES STARTED

to preserve their own African religious beliefs
to promote their own interest in economics and politics

SOME INDEPENDENT AFRICAN CHURCHES

Providence Industrial Mission (PIM) led by John Chilembwe
Black Man's Church led by Yesaya Zerenji Mwase and Charles Chinula
Watch Tower Movement led by Elliot Kamwana

A map of Malawi showing the location of the Independent African churches

Islam

Islam was brought to Malawi by Arab Swahili traders. The Arabs came from Arabia and the Persian Gulf.
The Arab Swahilis came to Malawi because of trade.
The notable Arab Swahili traders were Mlozi and Msalemu at Karonga and Jumbe Salim bin Abdullah in Nkhotakota.
In the southern region, there was no any well-known Arab Swahili trader but Islam spread among the Yao because of the following reasons:

their contact with the East African coast through trade
the Yao chiefs who readily accepted Islam
similarities between the existing traditional religious beliefs of the Yao and Islam which meant that Islam could easily be accepted
the lake which was the main transport route to East Africa through Tanzania

THE MAIN ISLAMIC CENTRES IN MALAWI

Salima
Nkhotakota
Mangochi

Machinga
Zomba
Chiradzulu
Blantyre
Mulanje

A map of Malawi showing the location of the early Islamic mission stations

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE EARLY MISSIONARIES TO MALAWI

spreading of Christianity and preaching against the slave trade
establishment of schools
establishment of hospitals
establishment of colleges
establishment of trade in goods to replace the slave trade
establishment of community development projects
provision of civic education
introduction of new crops
abolition of the slave trade
spreading of Islam
promotion of technical and professional skills

UNIT 4 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF AFRICA

Africa has many physical features.
THE MAJOR PHYSICAL FEATURES OF AFRICA

mountains
plains
basins
valleys
plateaus
rivers
lakes

EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL FEATURES AND COUNTRY EACH PHYSICAL FEATURE IS FOUND
Basins

Chad Basin in Chad
Congo Basin In Democratic Republic of Congo

Plateaus

Viphya Plateau in Malawi
Nyika Plateau in Malawi

Plains

the Lilongwe-Mchinji-Kasungu Plains in Malawi

Mountains

Kilimanjalo Mountain in Kenya
Atlas Mountain in Morocco
Ethiopian Highlands in Ethiopia
Mulanje Mountain in Malawi

Rift valleys

the East African Rift Valley in Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi

Rivers

Congo River in Congo
Zambezi River in Mozambique
Nile River in Egypt
Niger River in Niger

Lakes

Lake Malawi in Malawi
Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania
Lake Victoria in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda

THE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL FEATURES
Basins and rift valleys

they are sites of lakes and rivers
both lakes and rivers are a source of water

Plateaus

they are good sites for tourists
they may be used for feeding cattle and other animals when they are covered with grass

Mountains

big mountains usually attract tourists
mountains are usually sources of rivers
mountains sometimes contain valuable minerals
mountains also influence the rains to fall

Plains

plains are used for agriculture
plains are also good for construction of houses
plains are also good for construction of communication lines

Lakes

lakes can be used for irrigation
lakes can be used for transport
lakes can be used for fishing
lakes can be used for tourism
lakes are a source of water
lakes may form international boundaries

Rivers

rivers can be used for irrigation
rivers can be used for transport
rivers can be used for fishing
rivers can be used for tourism

rivers are a source of water
rivers may form international boundaries

UNIT 5 WORK AND MONEY WORK
Work is any activity which a person does to earn a living
Examples of activities one can do to earn some money are:

growing crops
building houses
building bridges
building roads
operating machines

There are two main types of work. These are paid work and voluntary work.
PAID WORK
This is when people work to get money for a living.

Examples of paid work

teaching
nursing
engineering
cotton and tea picking
digging water ways
sorting tobacco

VOLUNTARY WORK
This is when people work or provide services without getting any money.

Examples of voluntary work

the work of Red Cross Society
self-help projects
work of religious organisations

THE IMPORTANCE OF WORK

people work to provide basic necessities for themselves and the whole family
people work to get money to buy and pay for things and services for their families
people work to provide services in their communities
people work to help in acquisition of skills
people work to make them independent and self reliant
people work to satisfy individual social needs of voluntary organisations

MONEY
Money are stamped coins or printed notes given and accepted when buying and selling.

TYPES OF MONEY
There are three types of money.
These are:

coins
bank notes
bank deposits

Coins are stamped metals made of gold, copper or silver.
Bank notes are paper money sometimes called paper currency.
Bank notes are in a form of cheques, credits, postal orders, money orders, traveller's cheques and bank drafts.
The safest way of keeping money is in banks.

FUNCTIONS OF MONEY

medium of exchange
payment of goods and services
measure of value
store of value

UNIT 6 COMPANIES AND INDUSTRIES

FIRM, COMPANY and INDUSTRY
Businesses can be classified into a firm, company or industry.

People earn a living in different ways.
Some of the ways are through employment as they work for another organisation or self-employment.
In self-employment, one can decide to start a business such as owning a hawker, family farm or an organisation which can employ many people.
When a person employs many people in an organisation, it is called a firm. A firm usually has a limited capital.
When business expands, the person running it may not manage it alone. Some suitable people may join to form a partnership.
The new people who join and put in some money or buy shares are called shareholders. In return for putting money into the business, the partners share the profits.
The partners assist the business in many ways.
Some of the ways are providing new ideas for improving sales and management. The shareholders do not usually work on their own.
They set up a board of directors and employ people to run the business. This is now called a company.
When a company grows and makes a lot of profits and is recognised by many countries, it becomes an industry.
In an industry, raw materials are changed into finished products.

There are three types/categories of industries. These are:

primary industry
secondary industry
tertiary industry

Primary Industry
@ This involves the exploitation of natural resources and raw materials.
@ It includes agriculture, forest, fishing and mining.

Secondary Industry
@ This deals with the manufacturing of products.
@ This can be directly from raw materials or from other materials from other sources.

Tertiary Industry
@ This consists of jobs that provide services but do not actually produce any goods.

Examples of these include a wide range of businesses and professionals such as health, education, armed forces, government offices and management in private industries.
It also include people involved in transport and retail trades.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEMAND AND SUPPLY IN RELATION TO PRICES
Demand is the number of people who will require the goods and services. Supply is amount of something that is provided or available to be used.

Factors That Affect Demand and Supply

price of the commodity
quality of the commodity
condition of demand

On the other hand, supply is affected by the following:

price of a commodity
demand of the commodity
production costs
natural disasters
epidemics

When demand is high, companies and industries produce more.
When there are a lot of goods on the market, supply is high and the price is low. When there is a high demand and the goods are in low supply, the price is high.

A company is a commercial business.
A company is a legal entity formed by a group of individuals to engage in and operate a business enterprise.
An industry is an economic activity concerned with the processing of raw materials and manufacture of goods in factories.
An industry is a group of manufacturers or businesses that produce a particular kind of goods or services.

UNIT 7 THE CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF AFRICA

CLIMATE
Climate is the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time.

It is mainly composed of rainfall and temperature. Climate can either be hot or cold, wet or dry.

Africa can be divided into a number of climate zones.
These are controlled by a number of factors such as altitude, distance from the sea and distance from the equator.

THE MAJOR TYPES OF CLIMATE OF AFRICA (MAJOR CLIMATE ZONES) AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The equatorial climate

It is found between 50 north and 50 south of the equator. It has high temperatures.
Rainfall almost throughout the year.
It is found in countries like Ghana, Nigeria and Congo.

The tropical savannah climate (tropical continental climate)

Its summers are usually hot and wet while the winters are generally cold and dry. It is found in countries such as Malawi, Tanzania and Zimbabwe.

The tropical desert climate (the hot desert climate)

It is experienced in North Africa in the Sahara Desert.
Desert areas are very hot during the day and very cold during the night. They receive little or no rain.

The Mediterranean climate (the west margin climate)

It occurs between 300 south and 450 south and 300 north and 450 north of the equator. The areas have dry summers and wet winters.
During the summer, it is dry and the skies are blue.
In winter, the skies are very cloudy and humid, bring heavy rainfall.

A map of Africa showing climate zones and types of vegetation

THE VEGETATION OF AFRICA AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
The type of vegetation in an area is determined by the type of climate it experiences. For example, in Malawi, there is a lot of vegetation during the rainy season while during the dry season the vegetation dries up.

The following are some of the types and characteristics of vegetation in Africa.

Tropical rain forest or equatorial

The vegetation is found in areas along the equator. It is characterised by the following:

heavy and thick forest
vegetation is always green
vegetation of various types and heights
crops grown include rubber, coffee ,cotton and coconut

The savannah or tropical grassland

This is the type of vegetation that is mainly composed of grass. It is found in many countries in Africa.

the grass is usually tall and covers large areas
the trees are scattered
the grass always regenerates when rains come
the savannah region is a rich agricultural area and crops grown include maize, wheat, millet and tobacco
it has many types of wildlife

Desert vegetation

There are several countries in Africa with this type of vegetation. This vegetation is found in both north (Sahara) and south (Kalahari) of the equator.
The following are the characteristics:

the surface is usually bare with scattered thorny bushes
the vegetation has thick stems with waxy leaves while others have thorns
some of the vegetation has a short life span
the surface is usually sandy or stony
little agriculture is done and crops grown include dates and palms

The Mediterranean vegetation

This vegetation is found in areas that experience the Mediterranean climate. It is found in South Africa and countries along the Mediterranean Sea.
The vegetation is shiny and waxy to conserve water during the dry season. Crops grown include dates, palms, wheat, maize and fruits.

UNIT 8 THE CENTRES OF EARLY CIVILISATION

CIVILISATION
The term 'civilisation' refers to changes and developments in life.
It can also refer to the organisation of society where people live a settled life together, and engage in activities such as formal education, trade, farming, building, fishing and painting.

The changes and developments include the following:

a large number of people living together in an organised manner
sharing ideas and development of arts and crafts such as music, painting, building, carving and drawing
a sense of right or wrong guided by laws
developed political and administrative structures
a division of labour where individuals are specialised in particular tasks, for example, building, farming or painting
production of adequate food for consumption and for sale
a developed system of worship
advanced farming practices

THE EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION
One of the most well-known civilisations in Africa was in Egypt. This civilisation grew along the Nile River Valley. Its achievements influenced a number of other civilisations in Europe and the rest of the world.

A map of ancient Egypt showing the centres of the early civilisation

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION

The availability of fertile alluvial soil
The production of abundant food by irrigation
The protection from external attacks by natural barriers
Little contacts with the outside people

The Egyptian were religious people
Hardworking
Strong military force of conquering enemies
prosperous trade in gold, ivory and hardwood

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION TO THE MODERN WORLD

writing
building
calendar
religion
farming
government
medicine and science
arts and crafts

WRITING
The Egyptians discovered a method of writing called hieroglyphics.

They wrote it on a material made from papyrus reed. It was a system of picture writing, in which a set of pictures represented a word or a sound. This discovery helped to improve communication and preservation of history.

CALENDAR
The Egyptians inverted the calendar based on the moon. The calendar enabled them to tell when to expect floods and when the dry season would start.

FARMING
The Egyptians practiced irrigation. They used a machine called a shaduf to irrigate their gardens.

a shaduf

BUILDING
The Egyptians were good stone builders. They used stone to build the temples and tombs. They built pyramids which were tombs for royal people like kings.

RELIGION
The Egyptians believed in many gods. These gods symbolised natural features like the sun, the moon and the Nile River. The Pharaohs were also believed to represent the gods on earth.

GOVERNMENT
The Egyptians were the first people to have a system of organised government. Their rulers were called the Pharaohs.

MEDICINE AND SCIENCE
The Egyptians manufactured and used many medicines. They developed a way of preserving dead bodies. The preserved bodies were known as mummies.

ARTS AND CRAFTS
The Egyptians were good stone and wood carvers. They made beautiful cloth from wool and cotton. They also made tools out of metal. When they discovered copper, they mixed it with tin to make bronze.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DECLINE OF THE EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION

the expansion of the kingdom to the south which make it easy for attacks by the Assyrians and Persians
The Egyptians dynasty was finally attacked by the Greek led by Alexander the Great

UNIT 9 SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT

GOVERNMENT
Government is an organised institution with people who are entrusted with the authority or power to administer the laws and affairs of a country.

BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT

Legislature

Executive
Judiciary

DIFFERENT TYPES OR SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT

Democracy
Autocracy
Monarchy
Socialist or communist
Military

DEMOCRACY
In a democratic system of government, no one individual, group of individuals or organisation holds absolute power.
It is based on the principle of participation and respect of human rights. All citizens participate actively in running the government.
This is why it is called the government of the people, by the people and for the people.
A democratic government is also characterised by the period elected members are in office. In Malawi it is 5 years.

AUTOCRACY (DICTATORSHIP)
This is a form of government where the power is in the hands of an individual or groups of individuals. The power is unchangeable. In most cases, the rulers are worshipped.
What the ruler has said is the law. Elections are irregular, not free and fair.
Candidates are either appointed or elected to participate in running the affairs of the government. The constitution is either absent or not followed.

MONARCHY
The rulers in this type of government are not elected.
They acquire their positions through inheritance by blood and they rule for life. Titles such as king, queen, emperor, empress and prince are used.
Sometimes monarchies have constitutional powers where rulers are guided by the constitution. In some cases, monarchs have absolute power in which their authority is not questions.

SOCIALIST OR COMMUNIST GOVERNMENT
This system of government is based on the economic and political beliefs that control the means of production, distribution and exchange of wealth in a country.
All the wealth in the country is controlled by the state. No one owns private property. Although rulers are elected, they come from one political party.

MILITARY GOVERNMENT
This is when a country is ruled by soldiers whose power is unopposed. Rulers assume power by force and are not elected.
Sometimes there is a parliament which just approves the orders of the military. There is no specific term of office.

THE HISTORY OF THE SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT IN MALAWI
Malawi has undergone changes in forms of government. In 1963, Malawi attained self government from Britain.
In 1964, Malawi became a multiparty republic. The leader was called the prime minister. In 1966, Malawi became a republic and the prime minister was now called the president.

Between 1971 and 1994, Malawi was a one party state under the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). Elections were held just for formality. The president became a life president, but the members of parliament changed during elections.
In some cases, the same people maintained their positions for as long as they were alive. Most leaders were imposed on the people and the constitution was silent and not followed.
With the one-party system, the ruler was a dictator and his word was law.

On 14 June, 1993, a national referendum was held to vote for either one party system of government to continue or to change to multiparty system of government.
Malawians voted for multiparty system of government. This saw Malawi reverting to a multiparty state.

On 17 May, 1994, general elections were held. There were a lot of political parties which participated in the elections.

Some of the political parties that took part in the general elections were:

United Democratic Front (UDF)
Alliance for Democracy (AFORD)
Malawi Congress Party (MCP)

Malawi Democratic Party (MDP)
United Front for Multiparty Democracy (UFMD)

Malawians elected United Democratic Front with Bakili Muluzi as president. A new constitution was written which followed the principles of democracy.

UNIT 10 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

The central government is the part of government which controls the affairs of the country.

THE ORGANISATION STRUCTURE OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Malawi has a two-level system of government:

The central government
local government

THREE BRANCHES OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

the executive
the legislature
the judiciary

THE COMPOSITION OF BRANCHES OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

The Executive Branch

The executive branch comprises of the president and the cabinet.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH

Initiating government policies
Implementing and enforcing the laws of the country
Providing various social services to people
Planning for development projects

The Legislative Branch

The legislative branch is composed of the speaker and members of parliament or national assembly. The speaker is the leader of the national assembly.

Members of parliament are elected into parliament through national general elections
Members of parliament represent people in parliament for their areas which are called constituencies. Members of parliament are elected for a period of 5 years.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Making or changing the laws of the country
Discussing issues that affect the nation
Participating in national budget

The Judicial Branch

The judiciary is composed of the law courts, the chief justice, judges, registrar of the high court and the magistrate.
Each of these branch has powers to check on the other branches of Government therefore. They are all at the same level.

FUNCTIONS OF THE JUDICIAL BRANCH

interpreting all laws of the country
ensuring that the laws of the country are obeyed
resolving disputes using the law
protecting the people from human rights abuses

TYPES OF COURTS
There three types of courts. These are:

the supreme court
the high court
the magistrate or subordinate court

The supreme court

This is the highest court in Malawi

The lawyers that are in the supreme court are called justices
The chief justice is the head of the supreme court

The high court

This is the second highest court in Malawi
Lawyers who hear cases in the high court are known as judges

The subordinate courts

These are commonly referred to as magistrate’s courts
They are below the high court
Magistrate’s courts hear minor cases of civil and criminal nature (not treason, murder or manslaughter).
The other subordinate court is the industrial relations court or labour court. This handles disputes related to employment, dismissal of workers, unfair working conditions in factories and estates and salaries.
The magistrate court is headed by the registrar of the high court

HOW LAWS ARE MADE STAGES OF MAKING THE LAWS

Presenting a motion on a bill
Debating the bill
Voting for or against a bill
Approving by the president

The making of laws is one of the most important functions of parliament. The following stages are followed:
Stage 1: Members of parliament move a motion for a new law to be made or for a law to be changed. The proposal or draft document is called a bill. The Member of Parliament explains what the bill is about and gives the reasons for the new law or why the existing law must be changed. A bill is a draft document or proposal for a new law to be made or for a law to be changed

Stage 2: Members of parliament debate the bill for or against the proposal

Stage 3: Members of parliament vote whether to accept or reject the bill. It is passed once the majority of members of parliament

Stage 4: The bill is then presented to the president for approval. Once it has been approved, it becomes an act or law.

THE IMPORTANCE OF LAWS

ensuring that people are treated fairly and equally
ensuring that people do not abuse their authority or power
protecting personal and public property
preventing crime, hence, maintaining peace and order
ensuring that people's rights and interests are protected

HOW LAWS ARE ENFORCED

educating people about the laws
ensuring that all citizens obey them
ensuring that criminals are not left free once found guilty

UNIT 11 DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT

DEMOCRACY
The word ‘democracy’ comes from two Greek words demos which means people and kratos which means authority or power.
A democratic government is defined as a government of the people, by the people and for the people. Leaders are chosen by the people to represent them and protect their rights and interests.

A democratic government is characterised by the following principles:

leaders are elected or chosen by the people
those elected have a limited period to govern
the rights of the minorities are protected
the government rules with the freely given consent of the people
people have the right to demonstrate against unpopular actions or decisions

PRINCIPLES OF A DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT

regular, free and fair elections
tolerance
the rule of law
control of abuse of power
bills of rights
equality
citizen participation
acceptance of election results
accountability and transparency

Regular, free and fair elections
There should be no intimidation or bribery or threats during elections.

Tolerance
In a democracy, people with different views must accommodate and respect each other despite the differences they may have.

The rule of law
In a democracy, no one is above the law. Everyone irrespective of status is equal before the law.

Control of abuse of power
This principles prevents elected leaders or appointed groups of people from abusing their power.

Bills of rights
This is a list of rights and freedoms granted to all the people, and limits the power of the government. The bill of rights is found in the constitution of the Republic of Malawi.

Equality
All citizens in a democracy should be treated equally regardless of their ethnic group, race, region, sex or political affiliation. Everyone should be valued equally and must have equal opportunities.

Citizen participation
Citizens must take part in the affairs of the government. This can be through voting, standing for elections, paying taxes, accessing information and participating in development work in their communities. People should also be informed by the government on the affairs concerning them.

Acceptance of election results
Accepting election results strengthens democracy. The losers should accept defeat.

Accountability and transparency
The leaders should be accountable to the people. They are answerable to people on whatever they have done. They should accept responsibility for their actions, and this should be carried in accordance with the people's will and interests. They should explain matters to the people and should be free to ask questions and get answers from their leaders.

SEPARATION OF POWERS
There are three branches of government in any democratic government. These are the legislature, the executive and the judiciary.
These branches clearly spell out separation of powers. These are there to provide checks and balances.

The executive

The head of this branch is the president. He or she is assisted by ministers and all civil servants. The duty of the cabinet ministers is to supervise the work of the government departments and help in making decisions on government policies. The ministers are given specific duties to do such as overseeing labour, education, health, agriculture and finance. Civil servants work under particular ministries.

The legislature

This consists of the national assembly which together with the president make up parliament. This is the body which makes laws. The national assembly is composed of members of parliaments (MPs) who are elected once in 5 years to represent constituencies.
Constituencies are areas found in each district. The sizes and boundaries are decided by the electoral commission which is responsible for conducting all the elections. Any Malawian citizen of over 21 years can be elected to the national assembly.
The head of legislature is the speaker.
The speaker of the national assembly is chosen by members of parliament among the parliamentarians.
The speaker of the national assembly is responsible for chairing meetings and maintaining discipline in the national assembly.

The legislature or parliament is responsible for:

representing the people of their constituencies by debating issues that affect them
checking the activities of the other branches of the state
making laws for the country done by formulating, debating and passing laws that conform to the constitution and approved by the president

The national assembly also works through committees made up of MPs such as the public appointments committee, the finance and budget committee, the legal affairs committee and the education committee.

The judiciary

'Judiciary ' simply means the courts. Unlike the legislature and executive, the judiciary is an independent body. This branch represents an institution of government which exercises power through monitoring, checking and balancing the activities of the other two branches by requiring them to comply with the law at all times.
The judiciary in Malawi is made up of judges of the supreme court of Malawi, the high court and judges of smaller courts called magistrates.
These are the three levels courts in Malawi. All the courts are independent, which means they follow the law. No one is supposed to tell the courts how they should decide on a case.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE COURTS

protecting the constitution and other laws
resolving disputes or disagreements between people and institutions
interpreting or explaining the various laws and rules of the country as found in the constitution

The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of Malawi appointed by the president.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS

each branch is separate and independent of the others
helping to bring about responsibility
checking abuse of power
providing checks and balances
making sure that no one branch of government is more powerful than the others

GOVERNMENT
A government is a group of people who are responsible for controlling a country or state guided by the constitution or laws of the country.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL PARTIES

political parties act as a vehicle for mobilising popular support for various policy initiatives, and for creating a favourable environment for implementing rural development programmes
political parties provide political framework for popular participation
the political party that is voted into power forms the government
the political party that is voted into power develops government policies
the opposition parties in parliament provide the checks and balances

the opposition parties in parliament are part of government operation in the legislature
the ruling party distributes resources and provides a wide range of services by the central government
the ruling party promotes national building
the ruling party performs routine party activities

THE IMPORTANCE OF REGULAR ELECTIONS IN A DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT

they provide opportunities for citizens to exercise their powers
They give a chance to have other leaders instead of having the very same people
people own the government in power
They give chance to the citizens to use all the principles of democracy
They check on the abuse of power

UNIT 12 HIV AND AIDS

THE IMPACT OF HIV AND AIDS
HIV and AIDS affects people at different levels.

Individual level

The individual becomes weak and cannot take part in any social and economic activities
The individual depends on the other people for support
Individuals are stigmatised when people start discriminating them
Individuals are traumatised when they discover they have the virus
Individuals have a high rate of opportunistic infections

Family level

There are many orphans because of HIV and AIDS
Families spend a lot of resources such as finances and time taking care of the sick
Children assume parental roles when parents die
Families break apart when relatives share the orphaned children

Community level

Communities are burdened with so many deaths, sick people and orphans
Communities spend a lot of time attending funerals

Communities spend a lot of time taking care of sick people
Communities spend a lot of time looking after increasing number of orphans
Communities have financial and material resources under pressure

National level

There is increased pressure in health services due to the high number of AIDS patients
There is increased cases of opportunistic infections that require drugs to treat
There is inadequate medical personnel to attend to the many patients
There is a shortage of skilled personnel in various fields such as education, agriculture, security service

PREVENTION OF HIV AND AIDS

abstinence
being faithful to one partner
avoiding risky cultural practices
using a condom when having sex
Joining anti-AIDS clubs for guidance and counselling
avoiding getting pregnant when infected with HIV
preventing mother-to- child-transmission by using drugs
Not sharing skin-cutting instruments

SOME OF THE INSTITUTIONS DEALING WITH HIV AND AIDS AND DISSEMINATE HIV and AIDS messages

National AIDS Commission (NAC)
Youth Net and Counselling (YONECO)
Adventist Development Relief Agency (ADRA)
Malawi Business Coalition against HIV and AIDS (MBCA)

CARE FOR THE PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV AND AIDS

Providing them with clothes
Providing them with beddings
Providing them with soap
Providing them with medicines
Taking them to hospital when they are ill
Feeding them with nutritious food
Bathing them
Washing their clothes
Working and playing with them
Praying with them

UNIT 13 TOURISM

MAJOR TOURISM CENTRES

National parks and game reserves
Lakes and oceans
Water falls
Historical sites
Mountain areas

Major tourism centres and their examples

National parks and game reserves such as the Nyika, Liwonde and Kasungu in Malawi; Serengeti, Mikumi and Selous in Tanzania; Hwange in Zimbabwe in Gorongosa in Mozambique; Virunga in DRC; Ehosha in Namibia; Kruger in South Africa and Luangwa and Kafue in Zambia.
Lakes and oceans ; such as Lake Malawi; the Atlantic and Indian Oceans
Water falls such as Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River, Murchison Falls on the River Nile in Uganda.
Historical sites such as Zanzibar, Mwalawamphini in Dedza, Great Zimbabwe Ruins and Robben Islands
Mountain areas such as Mulanje in Malawi, Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and Drakensberg in South Africa.

IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM

Tourism creates employment opportunities to people who work in hotels and those who work as travel guides
Tourism improves health and transport services
Tourism promotes coordination and understanding between people from different countries
Tourism brings foreign exchange to the country which tourists bring
Tourism encourages the development of many sectors
Tourism promotes the preservation of wildlife for future generations
Tourism promotes a sense of sustainability for future generations
Tourism promotes the desire to travel more

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

goods shopping facilities
a stable economic environment
hotels of good standards
good travel agents
favourable weather conditions and climate
sandy beaches and good swimming areas
clear waters
good sites for mountaineering
the existence of wild animals
Historical or architectural areas of interest

friendly people and peaceful countries
availability of good food

THE FACTORS THAT HINDER THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

poor or inadequate accommodation facilities
poor transport facilities
unfavourable weather conditions
lack of information about the centres of interest
poor communication
long distances to major tourist centres major
unfavourable political conditions
outbreak of epidemic diseases

UNIT 14 NATURAL DISASTERS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
NATURE DISASTERS
Nature disasters are sudden events which may lead to damage of property and even loss of lives of people and animals.

SOME OF THE NATURAL DISASTERS WHICH AFFECT SOUTHERN AFRICA

Floods
Earthquakes
Landslides
Locusts
Drought
Lightning
Cyclones
Epidemics
Landslides and flush floods
Famine
Earth tremors
Pests

THE CAUSES OF NATURAL DISASTERS

Heavy rainfall

Changes in temperature and air pressure
Large quantities of loosened surface rocks sliding down steep slopes
Rocks getting saturated with water
Continuous period of dry weather
Having insufficient or no food in an area or country
Movements below the surface of the earth
Careless cutting down of trees
Having multiple sexual partners

THE EFFECTS OF NATURAL DISASTERS

Displacement of people
Destruction of crops
Loss of animals
Destruction of soil
Destruction of property
Destroying many fields of growing crops
Loss of lives of people
Suffering from epidemics of diseases
Starvation of people and animals
Destruction of buildings, communication and power lines

THE PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES AGAINST DISASTERS

Encouraging people to plant trees in places which are bare
Encouraging people to plant a variety of crops including drought resistant crops
avoiding settling close to river banks and on steep slopes
Avoiding establishing settlements along mountain slopes
Avoiding cultivating along mountain slopes
Switching off home electrical appliances during thunderstorms and lightning to avoid accident
Avoiding moving while there are strong winds
Not walking or playing when it is raining
Moving away from buildings as soon as earthquake occurs
Planting trees around houses to act as windbreaks
Reporting the presence of pests to agricultural extension workers
Reporting any epidemic to health authorities immediately
Avoiding having sex with multiple partners
Avoiding careless cutting down of trees
Listening to weather forecasts and taking necessary steps when advised

NATIONAL AND REGIONAL EFFORTS IN DEALING WITH DISASTERS

Establishing a regional drought reserve fund for purchasing grain
Giving relief aid to victims during emergencies

Warning people on forthcoming natural disasters
Advising people not to settle along river banks and steep slopes and to move to safer areas
Sensitising people on the importance of trees and the dangers of environmental degradation
Training people to be self-reliant
Planting seeds and using seedlings which can resist drought
Sensitising people on dangers of natural disasters
Creating development programmes to assist people in food production

UNIT 15 THE POPULATION COMPOSITION OF AFRICA

POPULATION
Population is the number people found in an area.

THE POPULATION COMPOSITION OF AFRICA
Africa has many countries each with different population sizes. Each country is composed of different tribes each with its unique characteristics.
Each of the tribes belongs to a major group of people.

THE POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA
The population of Africa is not evenly distributed. Some countries have more people than others.

REASONS WHY THE POPULATION IS DISTRIBUTED DIFFERENTLY

Vast areas of land are occupied by the Sahara Desert in the north and Kalahari Desert in the south. The Desert areas are very sparsely-populated.
Another vast land area is occupied by the tropical rain forest which is virtually uninhabited, for example, the Congo Forest
Some areas have very high populations because the soils are very fertile
Some countries have high populations because of the availability of minerals, oil and industries
Some countries have high populations because of the growth of cities and towns and coastal regions

MAJOR GROUPS OF PEOPLE OF AFRICA

The Hamites
The Nilotes

The Negroes
The Bantu

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR GROUPS OF PEOPLE OF AFRICA

The Hamites

They have brown skin
They have straight nose
They have long hair

The Nilotes

They are normally tall people with a very dark skin

The Negroes

They are more or less like the Nilotes.
They are generally tall with dark brown or black skin,
They have wide nose and thick lips.

The Bantu

They have black skin
They have short flat nose
They have thick lips
They have dark or brown short hair

LOCATION OF THE MAJOR GROUPS OF PEOPLE OF AFRICA

The Hamites
The Hamites are generally found in the Nile Valley and Ethiopian highlands. They are believed to have originated from Arabia.
Some Hamites also moved south to Kenya and Tanzania.

The Nilotes
The Nilotes are mostly found in East Africa, in Kenya, Sudan and Uganda. They are believed to have originated from Egypt.

The Nilotes of Uganda are called the Acholi.

The Nilotes of Kenya are called the Luo. The Nilotes of Sudan are called the Dinka.

The Negroes
The Negroes migrated from Asia to Niger around Lake Chad and spread further southwards across the southern part of Sahara Desert in West Africa.

The Bantu
The Bantu came from the highlands of Cameroon (around Lake Chad).
They migrated southwards to the Democratic Republic of Congo from where they migrated further to most of the countries of North East, Central and Southern Africa.

UNIT 16 POPULATION CHANGE IN AFRICA

The population of any place changes from time to time.
In most cases, the population increases. This is called population growth.
In some countries, the population may decrease. This is called population decline.

THE CAUSES OF POPULATION CHANGE

Births and deaths
Migration
Disasters

THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MIGRATION

search for jobs
search for new settlements
wars

THE EFFECTS OF POPULATION CHANGE IN AFRICA

increase in the number of children below 15 years of age who will be dependent on those aged between 15 and 64

increased pressure on the land for cultivation
increased pressure on the school facilities
increased pressure on medical facilities
increased pressure on the economy of the country
increased pressure on food distribution among the people
The destruction of the environment
Creates shortage of job opportunities
lowers the people's standards of living

THE SOLUTIONS TO THE EFFECTS OF POPULATION CHANGE

encouraging people to adopt family planning methods
improving the country’s health facilities
providing more job opportunities
improving agricultural production

UNIT 17 THE EARLY EXPLORERS OF AFRICA

There were several explorers who came to Africa. Some of them are:

Dr David Livingstone
Mungo Park
Speke
Burton
HM Stanley
Vasco da Gama.

DR DAVID LIVINGSTONE
Dr David Livingstone was born in Blantyre, a small industrial town near Glasgow, Scotland in 1813. Livingstone started his life in Africa as a missionary and through his experience he extended his vision and enlarged his ambition to explorations.
He explored the Zambezi River and had the first view of the great falls of Mosi-O-Tunya which he later named after Victoria.
Thus, Livingstone is believed to be the first white man to reach Victoria Falls.

In May 1858, Livingstone reached the mouth of the Zambezi but his hopes were dashed when the Kebrabasa Rapids proved insuperable. He turned aside to Shire where his expedition was more fortunate and his steam boat sailed up and down as far as the cataracts named by Livingstone, the Murchison Falls.
On April 18, 1859, Livingstone saw Lake Chilwa for the first time and commented on the beauty of the Shire Highlands landscape.
On a third trip up the river in June, he reached Lake Nyasa itself. He noticed that there was abundant evidence of slave trade and the lake itself clearly provided one of the great trade routes in land.
At a village on the Lualaba River, he witnessed slaughter of villagers by slave traders. The letter he sent home describing the event infuriated the public, and English Government pressurised the Sultan of Zanzibar to stop the slave trade. The pressure was only partially successful as the trans-Atlantic slave trade organised by the Portuguese had begun around 1530.
Livingstone was another explorer fascinated by the problem of the source of the Nile as another explorer Speke claimed. He therefore, in 1866, set out on a journey whose aim was to clear up once and for all the mystery surrounding the source of the Nile. He set off from Zanzibar for Ujiji on the Lake Tanganyika.
He explored the region around the lake but his efforts to prove that Lake Victoria was the source of the Nile were fruitless. He did, however, discover Lake Bangwelu and explored the upper reaches of the River Congo before his death in 1873.
His two African assistants dried his body and carried it and his papers on a dangerous 11 mouth journey to Zanzibar – a trip of 1,000 miles. The natives buried his heart in Africa as he had requested, but his body was returned to England and burned at Westminster Abbey.

MUNGO PARK
Mungo Park was born in 1771 near Selkirk in Scotland. He was a surgeon and explorer.
In 1795, he was sent by the Association for the Promoting of the Discovery of the Interior of Africa to discover the course of River Niger as it was believed that the Niger was a tributary of either the River Senegal or Gambia.
He was regarded as the first of the famous North Western explorers. He explored the area bordered by the rivers of Gambia and Senegal. He reached the source of Niger River before turning back. He found out that Niger flowed east.
Mungo Park was accompanied by an ex-slave raider, Johnson, who had returned from the West Indies. He was also accompanied by a slave called Demba, who had been promised his freedom on completion of the journey.
At his first stop at Bondou, Park was forced to give up his umbrella and his best blue coat. Shortly after his encounter with the local Muslims, Park was taken as prisoner. Demba was taken away and sold. Johnson was considered too old to be of value.
After four months, Johnson and Park finally managed to escape. He had no belongings except his mat and compass but refused to give up the expedition even when Johnson refused to travel to travel further.
Relying on the kindness of African villagers, Park continued on his way to the Niger, reaching the river on 20 July, 1796.

In 1805, Park reached another agreement with banks. Park was to lead an expedition to follow the Niger to its end. His party consisted of 30 soldiers from the Royal African Corps plus officers including his brother- in-law, Alexander Anderson, who agreed to join the trip.
Against logic and advice, Mungo Park set off from the Gambia in the rainy season. Within 10 days, his men were suffering from dysentery. This led to the death of some members.
By November 19, 1805, only five of them remained alive. Park, lieutenant Martyn and the three soldiers. These set off downstream from Segu in a canoe.
At Busa Rapids, Park and his small party were mistaken the Muslim raiders and they were shot dead and drowned in 1806.

BURTON AND SPEKE
Richard Burton John Henning Speke were two Englishmen who left Zanzibar in 1856 on a journey to the interior of East Africa. Their objective was to find out the source of the River Nile.
In august 1858, Speke reached Lake Victoria and guessed that it was the source of the River Nile.

HM STANLEY
Henry Morton Stanley, a journalist was sent by an American newspaper to prove if indeed Lake Victoria was the source of the River Nile as Speke had guessed. In two subsequent journeys, Stanley explored the country between Lake Edward and Lake Victoria.

The work by HM Stanley

He made a map of Lake Victoria from north to south and from east to west between 1871 and 1874
The he drew finally proved that the source of the Nile was Lake Victoria

VASCO DA GAMA
Vasco da Gama was born to a noble family in Jines, Portugal in 1460. Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who discovered the ocean route from Portugal to the east.
He sailed from Lisbon, Portugal on July 8, July 1497 heading eastwards. He was sent by King Manuel the first of Portugal.
Vasco da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa on November 22, 1497 and he continued on to India. After many stops in Africa and problems with Muslim traders who did not want interference in their profitable trade routes, Vasco da Gama reached Calcutta in India on May 20, 1498.
He returned to Lisbon, Portugal in September 1499. Along the way, many crew members died from scurvy caused by lack of vitamin C.
Upon his return, Vasco da Gama was treated as a hero and was rewarded by the king.
King Manuel 1 of Portugal then sent Vasco da Gama on another expedition to India (1502-1503). On this second trip, Vasco da Gama took 20 armed ships because he anticipated problems from Muslim traders.

On this voyage, Vasco da Gama killed hundreds of Muslims in order to demonstrate his power. After King Manuel’s death, King John the third sent Vasco da Gama to India again.
Vasco da Gama died of an illness in India on December 24, 1524 and his remains were returned to Portugal for burial.

A map of Africa showing exploration routes by different explorers

A map of Africa showing the exploration routes by Vasco da Gama

UNIT 18 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

TRANSPORT SYSTEMS OF AFRICA
Transport is a means of moving people from one place another.
Transport is also a means of carrying raw materials and manufactured goods to places where they are needed.

TYPES OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN AFRICA

Road transport
Railway transport
Water transport
Air transport

Road transport

There are a number of roads in Africa which connect major cities with each country and also to different countries.

Some of the major roads are:

Cape Town to Johannesburg in South Africa
Durban to Johannesburg road in South Africa
Johannesburg to Harare and Bulawayo road in Zimbabwe
Johannesburg to Harare and Lusaka in Zambia
Blantyre to Karonga road in Malawi

There are some areas in Africa which have few or no roads because of mountains, lakes, seas and deserts. For example, there is no major road between North Africa and West Africa because of Sahara Desert.
The Congo Basin has almost no roads because of the rainforest and many rivers.
The types of vehicles that use the roads include small cars, lorries, buses, trucks, oil tankers, bicycles and ox-carts.

Railway transport The major railway lines are:
Cape Town to Johannesburg railway line South Africa which extends into Zimbabwe and Zambia
Durban to Johannesburg railway line South Africa joining Cape Town to Zimbabwe line
Maputo to Johannesburg and Maputo to Zimbabwe railway lines
Beira to Zimbabwe – Zambia railway lines, and from Zambia to the port of Lobito in Angola
Nacala and Beira to Malawi railway lines
Dar es Salaam to Zambia railway lines which is also called the Tanzania -Zambia Railway (TAZARA)
Dar es Salaam to Kigoma railway lines on Lake Tanganyika

Mombasa – Nairobi to Kampala railway lines in East Africa

In general, Eastern and Southern Africa have more railway lines as compared to West Africa and North Africa.
The Sahara Desert and Congo Basin are a hindrance to rail construction.

Water transport

Africa is surrounded by three water bodies:

The Indian Ocean in the east
The Atlantic Ocean in the west
The Mediterranean Sea in the north

A seaport is a place where ships stop to load and offload goods and passengers.

The major sea routes:

Cape Town to Europe, North and South America
Cape Town and Middle East, India and Australia
Suez Canal via the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea

The Suez Canal is a passage which was dug through a piece of land to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea. This enables big ships to pass through the canal shortening the distance between Europe and Asia.

Air transport

Air transport is the fastest means of travelling. However, it is very expensive.

There are two types of air transport services provided in Africa. These are:

domestic air services
international air services

Domestic air services
Domestic air services refers to air transport provided within each country. For example, from Lilongwe to Blantyre and Mzuzu within Malawi.

International air services
International air services refers to air transport provided to enable people to travel to other countries within Africa and also outside Africa to Europe, America, Asia and Australia.

Air transport also carries goods like mail clothes and medicines. Such goods carried by a plane are called cargo.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSPORT

Type of transport	Advantages	Disadvantages
Road transport	it allows operating from door to door it stimulates economic activities it is faster than railway transport and water transport	untarred roads become impassable during the rainy season congestion because of too many cars encourages air pollution Risk of accidents is great noise pollution is high
Railway transport	it carries large volumes of goods it carries large numbers of passengers it is fast, if electrical	routes are not flexible as it follows defined lines it cannot travel up steep slopes
Air transport	it is fast it is comfortable	it has high running costs it is very expensive
Water transport	it can carry bulky goods it is cheap	it need deep ports it is not accessible in all areas it is too slow

COMMUNICATION
Communication is the passing of information, thoughts and ideas from one person or place to another.

SOME OF THE MEANS OF COMMUNICATION USED IN AFRICA

letters
televisions (TV)
phones
radios
newspapers
electronic mail (e-mail)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT MODES OF COMMUNICATION

Mode of communication	Advantages	Disadvantages
letter	it is cheap it reaches even the remote areas	it takes long time to reach destination Sometimes messages lose value
Telephone	messages are fast caller gets response immediately	it is not usable in areas where there are no network facilities it is expensive
Fax	it is fast it is useful in sending letters which are bulky	it is expensive to buy the machine it is not used where there are no telephone lines it is expensive
Electronic mail (e-mail)	it is fast	it is expensive it is needs skill it is not used where there is no computer or network
Radio	information is passed quickly	it requires batteries or electricity

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT

it makes it easy for people to move from one place to another
it provides easy movement of exports and imports

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Messages and information are easily passed on to other people or countries to promote economic development.

UNIT 19 SAFETY

THE DUTIES OF TRAFFIC POLICE AND WARDENS
Traffic wardens are people assigned the duties of traffic control. Examples of traffic wardens are scholar patrols.

These scholar patrols are school children that stop cars for fellow school children to cross the road near schools that are located along busy roads.
Other examples of traffic wardens are city assembly workers working in towns, airports, hotels and private companies. All these help to regulate traffic in these places.

THE DUTIES OF TRAFFIC POLICE

checking the road worthiness of vehicles
prosecuting any kind of traffic offence
offering rescue services at the scenes of accidents
checking over-speeding vehicles
educating the public about road safety

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES TO BE OBSERVED ON THE ROAD BY DRIVERS

observing traffic rules and regulations
making sure that the car is safe and in good condition before driving it
wearing proper shoes and comfortable clothes
watching out for bad drivers by being alert all the time
reporting any accidents that they may be involved in
wearing safety belts
resting when they feel tired
avoiding driving when they are depressed
avoiding drinking alcohol and drive
ensuring that small children are always in the back of the car with locked doors

THE PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES TO BE OBSERVED ON THE ROAD BY CYCLISTS

cyclists should know the highway code
cyclists should make sure that their cycles are safe before riding them
good cyclists should always think about other people
cyclists should always watch out for children who just run into the road
cyclists should ensure that anything carried is firmly fixed and does not get in the way of the road users
cyclists should put on something white when cycling at night and the bicycle should have light in front and refractors at the back

THE PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES THAT PEDESTRIANS NEED TO OBSERVE ON THE ROAD

pedestrians should use the foot paths which are provided for them alongside the road
pedestrians should walk next to the edge of the road facing on coming
pedestrians should not walk in the middle of the road
pedestrians should carry light or wear something white at night
pedestrians should not walk or play in the road

pedestrians should not step into the road without first looking right, left and then right again to see if the road is clear
pedestrians should stand in the centre of the road to wait for a gap in the traffic and then cross when there is heavy traffic and the pedestrians are caught while crossing

THE PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES TO BE OBSERVED ON THE ROAD BY VENDORS

vendors should not sell their items on the road
vendors should sell their wares on established flea markets

ACCIDENTS AT HOME, WORK AND RECREATION PLACE
Accidents that may happen in home

being cut by sharp objects
falling down due to wet floors and poor lighting
electric shock
being burnt by hot water or oil

The causes of common accidents in the home

carelessness
tiredness
faulty equipment
not concentrating on the job that is being done

The precautionary measures to be observed at home in order to prevent accidents

draining bath tubs, pails and swimming pools when not in use
switching off all electrical appliances when not in use
removing water from the fire as soon as it boils
putting out fire once you finish using it
keeping away sharp knives and objects
keeping kitchen floors dry to prevent people from slipping and falling down

Accidents that may occur at work place

fire breaking out from factories
being cut by sharp machines
being electrocuted

The causes of accidents at work place

carelessness

faulty equipment
panicking
tiredness
not concentrating on the job that is being done
not following safety instructions
walking in places with inadequate light
not wearing protective clothing for the job that is being done

Precautionary measures to be observed in the work place to prevent accidents

obeying all safety rules
wearing protective clothing for the job that is being done
considering all power lines to be live and dangerous
not being careless when working with equipment and chemicals
reporting immediately any equipment that has faults
avoiding using the metal ladders, use wooden ladders instead to avoid contact with electricity
avoiding working while tired
recognising hazardous and dangerous spots to your operation or work
not using unskilled electricians

Accidents that may happen at recreation places

drowning in lakes or oceans
Falling when mountain climbing
being devoured by wild animals at national parks or game reserves
breaking legs or arms on school playgrounds

Some causes of accidents in recreation places

safety rules are not planned beforehand
people tend to have a carefree and daring attitude and they usually want to do as they like, forgetting all the rules
too much drinking which leads to carelessness
having school playgrounds that have potholes may cause accidents

Some precautionary measures to be observed at recreation places

remembering to keep all the safety rules
reading and learning all about doing something new like sailing or swimming
deciding not to take any risks
making sure that all the family knows how to get help if an accident happens
making sure that the car or bicycle is in good repair by having it checked before going out
not doing too much of an activity

UNIT 20 CIVIL WARS AND PEACEFUL CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Civil wars are wars which occur among people who belong to the same country. Conflicts are disagreements in ideas, opinions, interests and viewpoints.
Conflict resolution refers to the settling of differences or disagreements between or among people, communities and nations.
The best way to resolve a conflict is to approach it in a non-violent or peaceful way.

THE CAUSES OF CIVIL WARS

Political differences
Ethnic differences
Religious differences
Lack of good governance
Economic benefits
Hunger for power

THE EFFECTS OF CIVIL WARS

death
injuries
refugees
famine
destruction of property
outbreak of diseases
widows and orphans
child soldiers
violent society

SOME PEACEFUL WAYS OF RESOLVING CONFLICTS

Negotiation
Mediation
Arbitration

PEACEFUL CONFLICT RESOLUTION SKILLS

tolerance
patience
respect
empathy
sympathy

effective communication

IMPORTANCE OF PEACEFUL CONFLICT RESOLUTION

it helps to promote peace and unity in homes, school and countries
it helps to reduce suffering, loss of life and destruction of property during civil wars
it helps to promote cooperation and development
it helps to create a good working environment
it helps to promote justice, equality, freedom and respect for people's lives

UNIT 21 AIR

Air is a substance which embraces the whole atmosphere. Air is used by both plants and animals.

IMPORTANCE OF AIR

All living things need it for breathing
plants need it for germination
Animal and plants need air to respire
Air and wind are useful during plant pollination

HOW AIR IS POLLUTED
Air pollution occurs when air contains gases, fumes or odour in harmful amounts. These amounts of fumes or odours can be harmful to the health and comfort of people.
These can also cause damage to plants and animals.
The substances that cause air pollution are called the pollutants.
Air pollution mainly occurs as a result of gaseous discharges from industries and motor vehicles. There are also natural sources such as wind-blown dust and smoke from fires.

WAYS IN WHICH AIR POLLUTION MAY OCCUR

odour from decomposing substances
smoking in public places
burning of car tyres
excessive release of smoke from firewood and charcoal
production of dust through quarrying and cement production
chemicals

THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

may cause respiratory diseases such as asthma and tuberculosis
may hamper respiration in plants and animals

WAYS OF CONSERVING AIR

avoiding smoking in public places
burning objects in such way that soot and dirt do not go into the air
using sprays such as insecticides and pesticides carefully
ensuring proper discharge or release of gases from the factories
burying decomposing substances
planting grass and trees to prevent dust from getting into the air

UNIT 22 THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Natural resources are things that are provided by nature.

THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

mountains
minerals
water
soils
air
wild animals
forests and other vegetation
fish

Mountains
Examples of mountains are Mulanje in Malawi; Kilimanjaro in Tanzania; Drakensberg in South Africa.

Minerals
Examples of minerals are gold in South Africa; uranium and bauxite in Malawi; copper in Zambia; diamond in Botswana and South Africa; coal in Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa

Water
Water is mostly found in lakes and rivers such as Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika, Shire River and Zambezi River, Limpopo River, Orange River, Rufiri River, Luangwa River as well as Caborabasa Dam and Kariba Dam

Soils
Examples of soil are clay, sand, roam and alluvial soil.

Air
This is manly composed of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

Wild animals
These are animals that live naturally in the bush. They are not kept by people. Most of these animals are kept in protected areas that are called national parks or game reserves.
Such protected areas include Serengeti in Tanzania, Liwonde in Malawi and Luangwa in Zambia.

Forests and other vegetation
There so many forests in Southern Africa and the general vegetation is quite varied

Fish
Some examples of fish are chambo, usipa, mlamba, kapenta and bakayawo. These are found in Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika, Indian Ocean and Atlantic Ocean.

THE IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Importance of mountains

mountains are sources of rivers
mountains are sources of minerals
mountains influence rainfall
mountains contain forests which are sources of trees
mountains attract tourists
mountains can be used for protection or defence
mountains are habitats for wild animals
mountains act as international boundaries

Importance of soil

crops need the soil to grow

bricks are made from soil
soil can be used for beautifying houses
soil may be used to build or maintain roads
soil is used for pottery
soil is the home of some animals
soil is sometimes used for burying rubbish

Importance of water

water is used for drinking
water is used for washing and bathing
water is used for irrigating crops
water is used for cooking
water is a means for transport
water is a home for fish and other marine animals
water may be used for production of hydro-electricity
water may be used for recreation purposes
water may be used for dumping wastes

Importance of forests

forests are homes of wild animals
forests are sources of timber and firewood
forests are sources of fruits that are eaten by people and other animals
forests are sources of traditional medicine
forests provide trees which are used for rubber production
forests attract tourists

Importance of wild animals

wild animals may be eaten as food by people
wild animals provide raw materials for traditional medicine
wild animals attract tourists who bring money into the country
wild animals may be used for producing items such as shoes from crocodiles, belts from leopard skin and hand bags from skins of snakes

Importance of air

air is used for breathing by all plants and animals
air transports moisture from one area to another
air helps in radio broadcasting and transmission of sound waves

air is used in tubes and tyres to operate well
air is used as a raw material in the production of fertilizer
air is used in refrigerators
air helps objects to burn

MISMANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES/DANGERS THAT NATURAL RESOURCES ARE FACING

Soil

over-cultivation and therefore losing its fertility
removal of vegetation cover exposing soil erosion
wild fires destroying the minerals in the soil
construction of ridges along the slopes leading to soil erosion
over-grazing

Wild animals

poaching
bush fire and careless cutting down of trees resulting in animals migrating to other habitats

Forests

clearing of forests in order to open new farms, roads or buildings
wild fires destroying the forests
wanton cutting down of trees

Water

water pollution
cutting down of trees leading to drying of rivers and streams
careless use of water

Mountains

bush fires destroying vegetation
cultivation on hill sides
quarrying activities
careless cutting down of trees resulting into severe erosion

CONSERVATION MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The environment can be conserved by:

maintaining vegetation cover to avoid erosion

making ridges across the slopes so that soil is not eroded
using manure or fertiliser so that soil fertility can be maintained
reducing smoke that is released into the air
planting as many trees as possible so that they absorb carbon dioxide
using water wisely
avoiding pollution of water and air
constructing water reservoirs like dams to harvest water
avoiding cutting down trees in water catchment areas
constructing ridges across the slope to retain water
establishing protected areas for wild animals to avoid poaching
enacting laws to protect wild animals
keeping domestic animals for meat

UNIT 23 MORAL VALUES

TOLERANCE
Tolerance means accommodating other people's views by understanding them.

Tolerance can be demonstrated through the following examples:

able to discuss and resolve conflict peacefully in the family
the learners understand each other and work together in school or class

THE IMPORTANCE OF TOLERANCE AMONG PEOPLE IN SOCIETY

In families where there is a conflict, members are able to discuss and resolve them peacefully.
In the school or classroom, the leaners understand each other and start to work together

THE IMPORTANCE OF TOLERANCE

Tolerance assists people to respect other people' viewpoints different from their own
Tolerance allows those in minority to express themselves
Tolerance gives room for views to be heard
Tolerance promotes sense of understanding
Tolerance allows people to accept decisions which have been discussed

Tolerance promotes interpersonal skills
Tolerance assists in the development of multiple roles from which people can choose
Tolerance reduces unbecoming behaviours which may lead to conflicts
Tolerance helps in personal development in order to become honest, self-reliant, self-controlled, respect for others, responsible, self-confident

THE IMPACT OF INTOLERANCE ON THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The following are some of the effects of intolerance on the national development:

There is no coordination, as a result, nothing is achieved
There is poor planning because of disagreements
People fear each other, as a result, no one takes a lead to initiate project work

THE END

REFERENCES

MIE (2008) Social Studies Teacher’s Guide for Standard 7, Domasi; MIE. MIE (2008) Social Studies Learner’s Book for Standard 7, Domasi; MIE. www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/industry www.investopedia.com/../company.asp

MITUNDU YA MAWU
DZINA
MLOWAM’MALO
MNENI
MFOTOKOZI
MUONJEZI
MLUMIKIZI
MPEREKEZ
MFUWU
MVEKERO
KUSIYANA NDI KUFANANA KWA MFOTOKOZI NDI MLOWAM’MALO
NTHAMBI YA CHIGANIZO
ZIZINDIKIRO ZA M’KALEMBEDWE
MALEMBO AAKULU
NTCHITO ZA ‘NDI’

MITUNDU YA MAWU

Yotsatirayi ndi mitundu ya mawu:

Dzina
Mlowam’malo
Mneni
Mfotokozi
Muonjezi
Mperekezi
Mlumikizi
Mfuwu
Mvekero

DZINA

Dzina ndi mawu omwe timagwiritsa ntchito poyitana kapena potchula chinthu kapena ganizo lililonse.

MITUNDU YA MAYINA

Dzina la mwinimwini

Ili ndi dzina la chinthu chapachokha (chosawanda).

Zitsanzo za mayina amwinimwini ndi monga mayina a anthu, mitundu kapena mafuko a anthu, misewu, nyanja, mitsinje, maiko, maboma, midzi, malo, mizinda, mapiri, masiku, miyezi, Mulungu, zigwa, milatho, ufumu, kampani, zipembedzo, ziyankhulo, zipani, ndakatulo, nthano ndi nkhani.
Polemba mayinawa timayamba ndi lembo lalikulu.

Zitsanzo:
Maliya, Malawi, Dedza, Namalenga, Januwale, Chitonga, Lachitatu, Chikhristu, Linthipe.

Dzina lopanda mwinimwini

Ili ndi dzina lotchulira zinthu zowanda (zopezeka ponseponse).

Polemba mayinawa timayamba ndi lembo laling’ono, pokhapokha ngati mayinawo akuyamba chiganizo kapena pamene ndi mitu monga mitu ya nyimbo, ndakatulo ndi nkhani ndiye tiwayambe ndi lembo lalikulu.
Zitsanzo:
nkhuku, mnyamata, mpweya, nzeru, mwala, fisi, ludzu, msonkho, uchembere, chulu.

Dzina la chinthu chokhudzika

Ili ndi dzina la chinthu chowanda chomwe timatha kuchiona, kuchimva ndi makutu kapena ndi thupi kapenanso m’mphuno kapena kuchikhudza kapenanso kuchiyeza.

Zitsanzo:
nyesi, nthunzi, mtambo, liwu, fungo, chigumula, utsi, mdima, mpweya, mwala, nkhuku, mnyamata.

Dzina la chinthu chosakhudzika

Ili ndi dzina la chinthu chowanda chomwe sitingathe kuchiona kapena kuchikhudza. Dzinali ndi la zinthu za m’maganizo chabe ndipo kawirikawiri timangowona zotsatira zake.

Zitsanzo:
nzeru, ufulu, maganizo, ubwezi, nsanje, changu, dumbo, mantha, chilungamo, nkhanza, mtendere, maloto

Dzina la unyinji

Ili ndi dzina la zinthu zowanda zomwe zili pagulu lawo la zinthu zofanana.

Zitsanzo:
msonkhano, mzukutu, mtolo, mulu, nkhwimbi, phava, bere, mpukutu, chipani, bungwe, gulu, mdipiti.

Dzina lachibale

Dzina lachibale (dzina lamphukira) ndi limodzi mwa mayina ambiri opangidwa kuchokera ku muzu kapena tsinde limodzi la mawu.

Mayinawa amaimira maganizo osiyana kapena zinthu zosiyana ngakhale kuti kholo lawo (muzu kapena tsinde) ndi limodzi.

Zitsanzo:
Tsinde: Mayina achibale
yenda: ulendo mlendo mwendo

taya: nthayo mtaya mataya chitayo

tuma: mtumwi nthumwi ntumiki utumiki

lima: ndime dima mlimi ulimi

NTCHITO ZA MAYINA

Kukhala mwininkhani (mchitantchito) Zitsanzo:

Yohane wapita kumunda.
Chiponde chadyedwa ndi mzungu.

Kukhala pamtherankhani

Zitsanzo:

Njoka yagwira chule.
Nazunga wandilembera kalata.

Kukhala dzina lolandirira kanthu Zitsanzo:

Ndamlembera Yohane kalata.
Amayi awaphikira alendo nsima.

Kukhala dzina lapadera

Zitsanzo:

Zuze, Chilombo, ali m’mudzimu.
Kodi umamudziwa Zikomo, mlembi?

Kukhala dzina loyitanira

Zitsanzo:

Yohane thawa njokayo.
Tabwera kuno, Manase.

Pamtherankhani wa mperekezi

Zitsanzo:

Ndipita kuchipatala ndi mwana.
Chimwemwe amachokera ku Kasungu.

Kukhala mtsirizitsi

Zitsanzo:

Pempho si mphunzitsi.
Bengo ndi mkango.

Kukhala msonyamalo

Zitsanzo:

Kumunda kwawirira.
Patsala paja pagona chinziri.
M’mudzi mwathu muli ufulu.

MAGULU A MAYINA
Mayina amayikidwa m’magulu osiyanasiyana.
Tingazindikire gulu la dzina pogwiritsa ntchito mphatikiram’mbuyo wosonyeza zambiri komanso pogwiritsa ntchito agwirizanitsi osonyeza chimodzi ndi zambiri.

Gulu (Mu-, A-)
Ili ndi gulu la mayina onse omwe amachulukitsidwa ndi mphatikiram’mbuyo ‘a-’. Zitsanzo:
Chimodzi Zambiri
munthu - anthu
m’bale - abale
fisi - afisi
mwamuna - amuna
mzamba - azamba

Gulu (Mu - , Mi - )
Ili ndi gulu la mayina onse kawirikawiri amachulukitsidwa ndi mphatikiram’mbuyo ‘mi - ’. Zitsanzo:
Chimodzi --Zambiri
mulungu--milungu
mkeka--mikeka
muzu--mizu
mwambi--miyambi

Gulu (U-, Ma-)
Ili ndi gulu la mayina onse omwe amayamba ndi lembo la liwu ‘u–’. Zitsanzo:
Chimodzi -- Zambiri
udindo -- maudindo
uta -- mauta
udzudzu -- udzudzu
ufa -- ufa

Gulu (I-, Zi-)
Ili ndi gulu la mayina onse omwe timawaloza ndi iyi m’chimodzi ndipo m’zambiri timawaloza ndi izi. Zitsanzo:
Chimodzi -- Zambiri
mimba -- mimba
mphwemphwa -- mphwemphwa

mfumu -- mfumu
inswa -- inswa
ndolo -- ndolo

Gulu (Chi - , Zi - )
Ili ndi gulu la mayina omwe amayamba ndi ch m’chimodzi ndipo amayamba ndi z m’zambiri. Zitsanzo:
Chimodzi - Zambiri
chambo - zambo
chulu - zulu
chikho -- zikho
chodyera -- zodyera
chibwana -- zibwana

Gulu (Li -, Ma - )
Ili ndi gulu la mayina omwe amayamba ndi ‘ma’ m’zambiri, ngakhale ena satero. Agwirizanitsi awo ndi i-
(m’chimodzi) ndi a- (m’zambiri).
Zitsanzo:
Chimodzi - - Zambiri
bala - mabala
khasu - makasu
fupa - mafupa
tsiku - masiku
diso - maso

Gulu (Ka -,Ti -)
Ili ndi gulu la mayina omwe amayamba ndi ‘ka’ m’chimodzi ndipo m’zambiri amayamba ndi ‘ti’. Zitsanzo:
Chimodzi -- Zambiri
kamwana -- tiana
kanthu -- tinthu
kadiso -- timaso

Gulu (ku ndi tsinde la mneni)
Ili ndi gulu la mayina omwe amapangidwa pophatikiza ku- ku tsinde la mneni. Zitsanzo:
kusaka (ku- ku saka)
kulemba (ku- ku lemba)
kugona (ku- ku gona)

Gulu (Ku -, Pa -, Mu - ndi dzina)
Ili ndi gulu la mayina osonyeza malo ndipo amayamba ndi ku- kapena mu- kapenanso pa-. Zitsanzo:
kumunda pamutu patchire m’mudzi

KAPANGIDWE KA MAYINA
Mayina amapangidwa m’njira zambiri monga:

Pophatikiza aphatikiram’mbuyo ku masinde othandiza kupanga mayina

Zitsanzo
Maphatikizo	Tsinde	Dzina
mu-	-nthu	munthu
wa- (a-)	-nthu	wanthu (anthu)
mu-	-dzi	mudzi
mi-	-zimu	mizimu

Mayina opanga kuchokera ku afotokozi
Zitsanzo
Tsinde la mfotokozi -- Dzina
-kulu -- kulu

-ng’ono -- ung’ono

Mayina opanga kuchokera ku aonjezi
Chitsanzo
Muonjezi - Dzina
bwino - ubwino

Mayina opanga kuchokera ku aneni
Zitsanzo
Mneni - Dzina
lima - mlimi
dana - udani
phunzitsa - mphunzitsi
konza - mkonzi

Mayina opanga kuchokera ku zinenero zina
Zitsanzo
Dzina - Chinenero
dona - chipwitikizi
ndege - chiswahili
tebulo - chingerezi
boma - chiswahili
mtchini - chingerezi
kachasu - chipwitikizi
nsapato - chipwitikizi
dondo - chishona
gomo - chishona
mlingo - chiyawo

Kulumikiza dzina ndi dzina lina
Zitsanzo

Dzina	Dzina	Dzina lopangidwa
mwana	bere	mwanabere
mwana	mphepo	mwanamphepo
utaka	fumbi	utakafumbi
bambo	mfumu	bambomfumu

Kulumikiza dzina ndi tsinde
Zitsanzo

Dzina	Tsinde	Dzina lopangidwa
nyama	-kazi	nyamakazi
mfuku	-kazi	mfumukazi

Kulumikiza mneni ndi dzina
Zitsanzo

Mneni	Dzina	Dzina lopangidwa
yang’ana	dzuwa	myang’anadzuwa
lima	njira	kalimanjira
pota	manja	mpotamanja
taya	makoko	mtayamakoko

Kulumikiza mneni ndi mlowam’malo
Zitsanzo

Mneni	Mlowam’malo	Dzina lopangidwa
konda	ine	kondaine
simba	zako	simbazako

Kulumikiza mneni ndi muonjezi
Zitsanzo

Mneni	Muonjezi	Dzina
yenda	usiku	chiyendausiku
ponda	m’thengo	chipondam’thengo
khala	pakati	mkhalapakati

Kulumikiza mphatikiram’mbuyo ‘ku-’ ku tsinde la mneni
Zitsanzo
Mphatikiram’mbuyo -- Dzina
ku- kudya
ku- kumwa
ku- kuphunzira
ku- kusamba

MLOWAM’MALO

Mlowam’malo ndi mawu omwe amaima kapena amalowa m’malo mwa dzina.

MITUNDU YA ALOWAM’MALO
Alowam’malo olowa m’malo mwa dzina la munthu/a dzina lakelake

Alowam’malo awa alipo a mitundu itatu motere:

Alowam’malo akalozamwini

Awa amalowa m’malo mwa dzina la munthu kapena anthu omwe akuyankhula. Zitsanzo:

Ine ndavutika kwambiri.
Ife tipita mochedwa.

Alowam’malo akalozamnzako

Awa amalowa m’malo mwa dzina la munthu kapena anthu omwe akumvera zomwe wina akuyankhula.
Zitsanzo:

Iwe, pita msanga.
Inu, thamangani munthu uja akuthawa.
Ndikuyankhula ndi inu.

Alowam’malo akalozawina

Awa amalowa m’malo mwa dzina la munthu kapena anthu omwe tikuwatchula m’nkhani. Munthuyu kapena anthuwo akhoza kukhala kuti ali kutali pang’ono kapena kwina kwake kotero sakudzimvera zomwe zikunenedwa zokhudza iwowo.
Zitsanzo:

Iye wakhaula ndipo sadzabwerezanso.
Iwo apita lero.

Alowam’malo oloza
Alowam’malo oloza chinthu chomwe chili pafupi kapena choyandikira
Zitsanzo:

Uyu wamenya mwana.
Ichi ndi choipa.
Aka ndi kanga.

Alowam’malo oloza munthu kapena chinthu chomwe chili patali pang’ono
Zitsanzo:

Icho chagwa chokha.
Ako ndi koyenera kukachotseratu.
Uyo wapha ng’ombe yanga.

Alowam’malo oloza munthu kapena chinthu chomwe chili patali
Zitsanzo:

Chija n’chofunika kukachitola msanga.
Aja akuti atopa.
Uja m’mene wateromu wanyanyala.

Alowam’malo aumwini
Zitsanzo:

Wake wabwera.
Chako ndi chako.
Zathu zalowa m’khola.
Wanga wabwera dzulo.
Ndationa tanu tikudya msipu.
Zanga zili paphiri.

Alowam’malo amgwirizano
Zitsanzo:

Amene afuna abwera.
Ndifuna zomwe zija.
Omwe agona asiyeni.

Alowam’malo odzichitira
Zitsanzo:

Wadzimenya yekha.
Mudzifunse nokha.
Khala pansi ungadzipweteke.

Alowam’malo otsimikiza
Zitsanzo:

Iye mwini wandifunsa za nkhaniyi.
Ine amene simungandimenye.
Ndine ndemwe ndaswa chikhochi.

Alowam’malo ofunsa
Zitsanzo:

Ukufuna ziti?
Wayani akubwera apo?
N’kuti wapitako?

Alowam’malo ochuluka
Zitsanzo:

Ndagula ziwiri zokha.
Anayi akubwera apo.
Mwalandira khumi.

Alowam’malo opatula (apaokha)
Zitsanzo:

Ena abwera kale.
Udye zonse.
Kambani zina.

NTCHITO ZA ALOWAM’MALO
Alowam’malo amatha kukhala eninkhani kapena pamtherankhani.

Eninkhani

Wa dzina lakelake

Zitsanzo

Ine ndimakonda mbatata yowotcha.
Iwo akumanga nyumba.
Iwe thawa njokayo.

Wa umwini

Zitsanzo

Zanga zabwera.
Chanu palibe.
Kwanu kuli bwino.

Wamgwirizano

Zitsanzo

Chimene chilibe ntchito tayani.
Amene afuna abwera.
Komwe wapita sikudziwika.

Woloza

Zitsanzo

Uyu pita nayeni.
Iyi yabwira ufa.
Ichi n’chimanga, icho n’chinangwa.

Wofunsa

Zitsanzo

Ndi ziti zagwera m’dzenje?
N’chotani watengacho?
Muti umati ulowe?

Zochuluka

Zitsanzo

Ambiri apita kukasewera mpira.
Angapo achita ngozi.
Chochepa sichikwanira.

Apamtherankhani

Wa dzina lakelake

Zitsanzo

Joni amandinena ine.
Tawaona iwo akumenyana.
Amakunyoza iwe.

Waumwini

Zitsanzo

Mukanditengereko yanga.
Ndathana nacho chanu.
Ndizikakhala kwathu.

Wamgwirizano

Zitsanzo

Mwadya zomwezo.
Sindifuna zotere.
Ndamudziwa amene waba.

Woloza

Zitsanzo

Ndipatse ilo.
Osaponda apa.
Wamuona uja?

Wofunsa

Zitsanzo

Ukufuna zotani?
Mukuyendera ziti?
Amakhala kuti?

Wochuluka

Zitsanzo

Ndadya zambiri.
Mundipatseko zochepa.
Tagwira angapo.

MNENI

Mneni ndi mawu omwe amatidziwitsa zochitika.

MITUNDU YA ANENI
Aneni alipo osiyanasiyana malingana ndi kapangidwe ndi ntchito zawo. Mitundu yayikulu ndi yodziwikiratu ilipo iwiri motere:

Mneni woyambukira

Ntchito ya mneniyu ndi kuwonetsa chinthu chomwe chagwira ntchito komanso chinthu chomwe ntchito yachitikira pa icho.
Zitsanzo

Galu wapha bakha.
Amayi ataya makiyi.

Mneni wosayambukira

Uyu sakhala ndi pamtherankhani kotero ntchito yake sisonyeza kuti yachitikira yani. Zitsanzo

Achimwene abwera lero.
Maliya wapita kale.

Magulu ena a aneni ali motere:

Mneni wophatikizika/wodalira

Uyu amadalira mawu omwe ayikidwa kutsogolo kwa mneniyo kuti ganizo limveke bwino. Zitsanzo

Iyi ndi nkhono.
Chikondi simnzanga.

Mneni wothandizira

Uyu amathandizira mneni mnzake kuti ganizo limveke bwino. Zitsanzo

Mphatso ali kugulitsa njinga.
Kodi muli kuyankhula ndi yani?

Okhala ndi tsinde la phatikizo limodzi

Zitsanzo

Mnyamata waba mbuzi.
Mawungu aja apsa ukaphule.

Okhala ndi tsinde la maphatikizo awiri

Zitsanzo

Amadziwa kulemba kalata.
Akucheza ndi bwenzi lake.

Okhala ndi tsinde la maphatikizo atatu

Zitsanzo

Tawonjeza thobwa mkapumo.
Wamaliza nsima yonse yekha.

Okhala ndi tsinde la maphatikizo anayi

Zitsanzo

Wafutukula kalata ndinapindapinda ija.
Joni wakutumula thumba la ufa lija.

Okhala ndi tsinde la maphatikizo asanu

Zitsanzo

Tambalikiza kuti anthu apatsidwawo amve uthengawu.
Bulubudira ndi bulangete chifukwa wazizidwa kwambiri.

NTHAWI ZA ANENI
Nthawi ya mneni ndi kakhalidwe ka mneni komwe kamasonyeza nthawi yomwe ntchito inachitika, ichitike kapena idzachitike.

MITUNDU YA NTHAWI ZA ANENI

Nthawi yakale

Zitsanzo

Tinadya.
Adagwa chagada.

Nthawi yakale ili ndi mitundu yakeyake itatu.

Nthawi yakale yathayi

Kusonyeza kuti ntchito yangochitika kumene ndipo yatha. Zitsanzo

Ndadya.
Tsamba lagwa.

Nthawi yakale yopitiriza

Imasonyeza kuti ntchito inkachitika mopitiriza. Zitsanzo

Iwo ankayenda pansi.
Makolo athu ankavala nguwo.

Nthawi yakale yathayi yopitiriza

Kusonyeza kuti ntchito yomwe inatha kumene kalelo inali yopitiriza. Zitsanzo

Tidakhala tikuyembekezera galimoto usiku wonse.
Anakhala akundinamiza kwa nthawi yayitali.

Nthawi yatsopano

Kusonyeza ntchito zochitika kawirikawiri makamaka chifukwa choti ndi ntchito kapena khalidwe la wochitayo.
Zitsanzo

Mulungu amakukondani.
Iwo amalima mpunga.

MITUNDU YA NTHAWI YATSOPANO

Nthawi yatsopano yathayi

Imasonyeza kuti ntchito yachitika kumene ndipo yatha. Zitsanzo

Mwagulitsa nsomba zija?
Adya kale ndipo akhuta.
Ife talemba mayeso.

Nthawi yatsopano yopitiriza

Imatidziwitsa kuti ntchito yomwe ikuchitika nthawi ino ndi yopitiriza. Mneni wake amakhala ndi m’phatikiram’kati ‘-ku-‘.
Zitsanzo

Dzuwa likuwala.
Ana akusewera pamchenga.
Ife tikuphunzira Chichewa.

Nthawi yathayi yopitiriza

Zitsanzo

Ndakhala ndikusita kuchokera m’mawa.
Mwakhala mukundinamiza.
Nthawi yonseyi takhala tikusewera.

Nthawi yamtsogolo

Imasonyeza kuti ntchito idzachitika mtsogolo. Zitsanzo

Ndidzabwera kwanu.
Tonse tidzafa.
Iye akuti sadzamwa mowa.

MITUNDU YA NTHAWI YAMTSOGOLO

Nthawi yamtsogolo yathayi

Imasonyeza kuti ntchito idzakhala itatha m’tsogolo pa nthawi yomwe chinachake chidzachitike kapena chidzakhala chisanachitike.
Zitsanzo

Adzakhala atathawa sukulu.
Chidzakhala chitaduka mam’mawa.
Iye adzakhala atakwatiwa chaka cha mawa.

Nthawi yamtsogolo yopitiriza

Imasonyeza kuti podzachitika ntchito mtsogolo, nthawi idzakhala yopitiriza. Zitsanzo

Ndidzizalulutira paukwati wako.
Mukaphunzira muzidzasangalala.

Nthawi yamtsogolo yathayi yopitiriza

Imasonyeza kuti ntchito yomwe idzakhale itatha nthawi ina yake m’tsogolo ndi yopitiriza. Zitsanzo

Adzakhala akudikira galimoto.
Panthawiyo mvula idzakhala ikugwa.

MSINTHO WA ANENI
Uku ndi kusintha kwa ntchito ya mneni poika aphatikiri ku tsinde la mneni kuti mneniyo apereke tanthauzo lina kapena losinthika.

MITUNDU YA MSINTHO WA ANENI

Msintho wochitidwa poyera Zitsanzo
- Maliya wamenyedwa kwambiri.
- Mbuzi yagwidwa ndi fisi.

2. Msintho wochitidwa mchibisira

Zitsanzo

Abambo apezeka ndi matenda a chifuwa.
Chipupa chamangika bwino.
Msintho wonyazitsa

Zitsanzo

Katswiri wa nkhonya uja wamenywa kwambiri.
Munthu uja wapezwa lero.
Galu wawo waphewa.

Msintho wom’chitira

Umasintha poyika aphatikiram’tsogolo awa: -ira, -era. Zitsanzo

Achimwene andigulira malaya.
Alinafe amubera zovala.

Msintho wochititsa

Umasonyeza chomwe chayambitsa kuti ntchito ichitike ndipo umasintha poyika aphatikiram’tsogolo awa: -etsa, -itsa.
Zitsanzo

Munthu wathawitsa mbalame.
Mkazi wachiwerewere waphetsa mwamuna.

Msintho wochititsitsa

Umasonyeza kuti ntchito yachitika mopitiriza muyeso kapena kuti yachitika kwambiri ndipo aneni amasintha poyika aphatikiram’tsogolo awa: -etsetsa, -itsitsa.
Zitsanzo

Penyetsetsa kuti uwone zenizeni.
Funsoli lavutitsitsa sindilembanso.

Msintho wochitirana

Umasonyeza kuchita ntchito mobwezerana ndipo aneni amasintha poyika m’phatikiram’tsogolo
-na.
Zitsanzo

Anyamata ang’ambirana zovala.
Atsikana amenyana kwambiri.

Msintho wotsutsana

Umasonyeza kutsutsana kwa ntchito yomwe yachitika ndipo aneni ake amasintha pochotsa lembo la ‘a’ lotsiriza kwa mneni ndi kuika m’phatikiram’tsogolo –ula

Zitsanzo
Mneni -- Msintho wotsutsana nawo
tseka -- tsekula
yala -- yalula
mata -- matula

Msintho wobwerezabwereza

Umasonyeza kubwerezabwereza kwa ntchito ndipo umasintha pongobwereza ntchito/tsinde la mneni.
Zitsanzo

Usamadutsadutsa msewu njinga zingakugunde.
Mkazi wokwatiwa sapitapita kwa makolo ake.

MFOTOKOZI

Mfotokozi ndi mawu omwe amatidziwitsa (amafotokoza) zambiri za dzina kapena mlowam’malo.

MITUNDU YA AFOTOKOZI
Afotokozi amaikidwa m’mitundu yosiyanasiyana yotsatirayi:

Mfotokozi wa maonekedwe

Mfotokoziyu amanena za maonekedwe a chinthu (mtundu kapena msinkhu). Mfotokoziyu amapangidwa kuchokera ku masinde ku masinde enieni a mfotokozi, mayina komanso aneni ena.
Zitsanzo

Munda wake ndi waukulu.
Ndili ndi mwana wamtali.
Msipu wobiliwira unapha mbuzi.
Watenga zake zoyera ndi zachikasu.

Mfotokozi wa mkhalidwe

Mfotokoziyu amanena za khalidwe la dzina kapena mlowam’malo. Mfotokoziyu amapangidwa kuchokera ku mayina, aneni, aonjezi ndi mvekero.
Zitsanzo

Iwo akumana ndi anthu achifwamba.
Atatu achiwewe aluma mbuzi.
Munthu wakuba sakondedwa.
Ena abwino sakhalitsa padziko.

Mfotokozi wa umwini

Uyu ndi mfotokozi yemwe amasonyeza umwini ndipo amapangidwa pophatikiza aphatikiram’mbuyo ku masinde a umwini.
Zitsanzo

Uja ndi mwana wanga.
Kuimba kwake kwandisangalatsa.
Galu wako ndi waukali.
Dzina lathu ndi lamtendere.

Mfotokozi woloza

Uyu ndi mfotokozi yemwe timagwiritsa ntchito poloza dzina. Afotokozi ena oloza amapangidwa pophatikiza aphatikiram’mbuyo ku masinde oloza n’kupanga alozi.
Zitsanzo

Khasu ili ndi la amayi.
Chala ichi chatupa.
Pamudzi pano pali mbava.
Ndamuona mwana uja.

Mfotokozi wochuluka

Mfotokozi uyu amasonyeza kuchuluka kwa zinthu. Mfotokozi uyu ali ndi mitundu yakeyake itatu iyi:

Mfotokozi wowerenga

Mfotokoziyu amawerenga mayina kapena alowam’malo ndipo amachokera ku masinde a mawerengo ‘-modzi’, ‘-wiri’, ‘-tatu’, ‘-nayi’ ndi ‘-sanu’.
Zitsanzo

Ndadya mbamu ziwiri.
Iye watsala madzi amodzi.
Ana asanu abwera kale.
Ndikufuna zinthu zitatu.

Mfotokozi wogawa

Mfotokoziyu amakamba za mayina kapena alowam’malo omwe ali pagulu pawokhapawokha. Mfotokoziyu amapangidwa kuchokera kutsinde ‘-li-nse’ ndipo amalembedwa ngati mawu amodzi.
Zitsanzo

Abwera wina aliyense.
Nkhuni iliyonse pamtolopo ndi yaiwisi.
Mundigawire chimanga chilichonse.

Mfotokozi wopatula

Mfotokoziyu amakamba za kuchuluka kwa zinthu posafotokoza mwatchutchutchu
chiwerengero chake. Mfotokoziyu amapangidwa kuchokera ku masinde ‘-chepa’, ‘-mbiri’, ‘-ngapo’, ‘-nse’ ndi ‘-na’.
Zitsanzo

Ndadya nthochi zochepa.
Ana ambiri abwera kale.
Zinthu zingapo zasowa.
Nkhuku zonse zafa.
Ana ena samva kamodzi.

Mfotokozi wamgwirizano

Mfotokoziyu amapangidwa kuchokera ku masinde a mgwirizano ‘-mene’ ndi ‘-mwe’.
Zitsanzo

Munthu amene waba sindinamuone.
Ili ndi buku lomwe ndimafuna.
Ophunzira omwe akhoza mayeso akusangalala.
Undiuze chinthu chimene chikukuvuta.

Mfotokozi wofunsa

Mfotokoziyu ndi mawu wofunsira omwe amafuna kudziwa zambiri za dzina kapena mlowam’malo. Mfotokozi amapangidwa kuchokera ku masinde ofunsira awa: ‘-tani’, ‘-ti’, ‘-nji’, ‘-yani’, ndi ‘-ngati’.
Zitsanzo

Mwagula nkhuku zingati?
Ndi galu wayani waluma mwana?
Awa ndi makhalidwe anji?
Kodi iye wagwetsa mtengo uti?
Ukufuna zinthu zotani?

MUONJEZI

Muonjezi ndi mawu omwe amanena zambiri za mfotokozi, mneni kapena muonjezi mnzake.

MITUNDU YA AONJEZI

Muonjezi wa mchitidwe

Muonjeziyu amafotokoza za momwe ntchito yachitikira.
Zitsanzo

Ife tafika bwino.
Anatilandira mwansangala dzulo.
Yohane amaganiza mwachibwana.
Nyembezi amayankhula monyada.
Nkhono imayenda pang’onopang’ono.

Muonjezi wa nthawi

Muonjeziyu amafotokoza nthawi yomwe ntchito yachitikira.
Zitsanzo

Anandigogodera m’bandakucha.
Mubwere kwathu masana.
Makedzana kunali ana opanda mwano.
Sindinamuone chichere.
Makono kwachuluka achifwamba.

Muonjezi wa malo

Muonjeziyu amasonyeza komwe ntchito inachitikira.
Zitsanzo

Ndamuona, ali kuno.
Buluzi aligone pamwala.
Galimoto yagwera m’mtsinje.
Musalowe muno.
Bwera pano, mnzanga.

Muonjezi wa muyeso

Muonjeziyu amapima kuchepa kapena kukula kwa momwe ntchito yachitikira.
Zitsanzo

Iye wavulala kwambiri pangoziyo.
Wamwa pang’ono.

Muonjezi wa muyeso ali ndi mitundu yakeyake yotsatirayi:

Wa muyeso wosonyeza kuwerenga

Muonjeziyu amawerenga kuti ntchito yachitika kangati.
Zitsanzo

Wabweranso kachitatu.
Ndagogoda kawiri koma sanandiyankhe.
Iye amapita kwawo kamodzikamodzi.
Anagwa kasanu ndi njinga.

Wa muyeso wokulitsa kapena wochepetsa

Muonjeziyu amakulitsa kapena kuchepetsa ntchito yochitika poyamikira kapena kutsimikiza m’mene chinthu chilili.
Zitsanzo

Iye amandikonda ine zedi.
Dziko lathu ndi lamtendere kwambiri.
Wophunzirayo ndi wolimbikira koposa.
Mutu ukundipweteka pang’ono.

Muonjezi wofunsa ndi woyankha

Muonjeziyu amagwira ntchito yofunsa kapena yoyankha movomereza, mokana kapena mokayika.
Zitsanzo

Ayi, sindimudziwa.
Mwabwera kodi?
Upita liti kwanu?
Toto ndakana.
Mwafika bwanji kuno?

MLUMIKIZI

Mlumikizi ndi mawu omwe amagwira ntchito yomangiriza mawu, akapandamneni kapena ziganizo.

MITUNDU YA ALUMIKIZI

Mlumikizi woluzanitsa (wophatikiza)

Mlumikiziyu amaika pamodzi mawu, akapandamneni kapena ziganizo.
Zitsanzo

Andigulira malaya ndi nsapato.
Jeketeli ndi lopepuka komanso lofunda.
Ine ndadya ndipo ndakhuta.

Mlumikizi wopatula

Mlumikiziyu amalekanitsa kapena kutayanitsa mawu, akapandamneni kapena ziganizo potsutsa ganizo la mawu olumikizidwawo.
Zitsanzo

Ndikufuna mpunga osati nsima.
Anayesetsa kulimbikira koma walephera.
Mundipatse ndalama zanga osati chakudya.

Mlumikizi wamgwirizano

Mlumikiziyu amayanjanitsa mawu, akapandamneni kapena ziganizo pokamba za chifukwa chochitira kanthu.
Zitsanzo

Iye wabwera chifukwa akudwala.
Poti mwatero, ndipita.
Sindifusanso popeza mwandilangiza.

Mlumikizi wazotsatira

Mlumikiziyu amaonetsa zolinga kapena zotsatira za ntchito.
Zitsanzo

Sankawerenga choncho walephera mayeso.
Amamuseka wodwala misala kotero wamumenya.
Pempha kuti akupatse.

NTCHITO ZA ALUMIKIZI
Alumikizi amagwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana m’ziganizo. Ntchitozo n’zofanana ndi mitundu ya alumikiziwo. Ntchitozo zili motere:

Kuphatikiza Zitsanzo

Abambo ndi amayi amalima kwambiri.
Anaphika nsima ndipo adya.
Mwana wake ndi wanzeru komanso waulemu.

Kutayanitsa/kulekanitsa

Zitsanzo

Ugule nsomba osati nyama.
Iye ndi wamwano koma mnzake ndi waulemu.
Ndikufuna ndalama osati zovala.

Kugwirizanitsa

Zitsanzo

Mupitebe poti atero.
Iye sabwera chifukwa akudwala.
Sindifusanso popeza mwandiseka.

Kusonyeza zotsatira/zolinga

Zitsanzo

Pempha kuti akugawireko.
Anatopa kotero waweruka.

Sankalimbikira choncho walephera.

MPEREKEZI

Mperekezi ndi mawu omwe amatsata dzina kapena mlowam’malo pofuna kuonetsa mgwirizano pakati pa dzinalo kapena mlowam’maloyo ndi mneni m’chiganizo.

MITUNDU YA APEREKEZI
Aperekezi amaikidwa mu mitundu yosiyanasiyana. Mitunduyo ili motere:

Mperekezi wosonyeza malo

Mperekeziyu amagwira ntchito yosonyeza malo kapena mbali.
Zitsanzo

Ndipita ku Lilongwe mawa.
Pa Linthipe panachitika zoopsa.
Sungayende wekha mu Blantyre.

Mperekezi wosonyeza umwini

Mperekeziyu amagwira ntchito yosonyeza mwini chinthu.
Zitsanzo

Buku la Zione lapezeka.
M’chiuno mwa mwana simufa nkhuku.
Mpeni wa Nabanda ndi wobuntha.

Mperekezi wosonyeza nthawi

Mperekeziyu amagwira ntchito yosonyeza nthawi yochitikira ntchito.
Zitsanzo

Ndidzabwera mu Januwale.
Kamuzu adabadwa pa 14 Meyi.
Sindinamuone kwa zaka zingapo tsopano.

Mperekezi wosonyeza chipangizo

Mperekeziyu amagwira ntchito yosonyeza chipangizo chogwirira ntchito.
Zitsanzo

Amumenya ndi ndodo.
Usanditengere ku mtoso ngati njoka.
Iye adzabwera pa ngolo.

Mperekezi wosonyeza mgwirizano

Mperekeziyu amakhala ngati wa umwini koma sic honcho chifukwa amagwira ntchito yongosonyeza mgwirizano.
Zitsanzo

Iye wabisala kuseli kwa nyumba.
Dziko la Malawi ndi lamtendere.
Iye ali ndi mankhwala amphamvu.

NTCHITO ZA APEREKEZI
Aperekezi amagwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana m’ziganizo molingana ndi mitundu yawo. Ntchitozo zili motere:

Kusonyeza mbali kapena malo Zitsanzo

Iye amakhala ku Salima.
Ukatsikire pa Malosa.
Tikapezana mu Limbe.

Kusonyeza umwini Zitsanzo

Mbuzi ya Lazalo yapezeka.
Wapulumikira m’kamwa mwa mbuzi.
Chipewa cha Naphiri n’cholimba.

Kusonyeza nthawi

Zitsanzo

Ndidzapita kwathu pa 11 Juni.
Mvula imayamba kugwa mu Novembala.
Sindinakumane naye kwa masiku asanu tsopano.

Kusonyeza chipangizo

Zitsanzo

Amubaya ndi mkondo.
Musanditengere ku mtoso.
Iye adzabwera pa galimoto.

Kusonyeza mgwirizano Zitsanzo

Musamalime m’mbali mwa mtsinje.
Phiri la Mulanje ndi lokongola.
Mtsogoleriyu ali ndi chikoka.

MFUWU

Mfuwu ndi mawu omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito mofuwula pofuna kusonyeza momwe zochitika zamukhudzira yemwe zamuchitikira.
Mawuwo amasonyeza kudabwa, kukondwa, kunyansidwa, kuwawidwa, kumva chisoni, kudandaula, kukopa chidwi ndi kulimbikitsa.
Mawuwa amathera ndi chizindikiro cha m’kalembedwe cha mfuwuliro.

Zitsanzo

Mayo!
Kalanga ine!
Hehede!

MITUNDU YA MFUWU
Mifuwu imaikidwa mu mitundu yosinasiyana.

Mitunduyo ndi iyi:

Mfuwu wosonyeza kudabwa Zitsanzo

Ha! Mwanayu ndi wamwano chotere?
Kani! Sindinadziwe kuti munakhumudwa.
Aa! Zakhala chonchi?

Mfuwu wosonyeza kuvomereza

Zitsanzo

Ame! Mulungu ndi wabwino.
Odini! Fikani, takulandirani.
Ataibaya nyamayo, ndinamva kuti shomo!

Mfuwu wosonyeza kudandaula kapena chisoni

Zitsanzo

Koto! Ndaponda minga.
Ogo! Ndangovutika chabe.
Kalanga ine! Malaya anga apsa.

Mfuwu wosonyeza kukondwa

Zitsanzo

Hee! Tidyera nyama.
Hehehe! Mwana wathu wapambana.
Phwando lakoma, woyee!

Mfuwu wosonyeza kulimbikitsa

Zitsanzo

Gaba, chinya!
Chilemba, menya! Gwetsa!
Shumba, gwira! Tidyere nyama.

Mfuwu wosonyeza kukopa chidwi

Zitsanzo

Mtendere! Mtendere! Tikhale pansi.
Aleluya! Ambuye akudalitseni.
Gulu lathu, motomoto!

NTCHITO ZA MIFUWU
Mifuwu imagwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana ikakhala payokha kapena m’ziganizo. Kawirikawiri ntchito za mifuwu zimagwirizana ndi mitundu yake. Ntchitozo zili motere:

Kudabwa Zitsanzo

Ha! Moti uyu ndi mwana wanu.
Kani! Sindimadziwa kuti mungandithandize.
Aa! Sindimayembekeza kuona zotere.

Kuvomereza

Zitsanzo

Ame! Mulungu akudalitseni.
Odini! Fikani.
Ndangomva kuti shomo!

Kudandaula kapena kumva ululu

Zitsanzo

Koto! Ndavulala kwambiri.
Ogo! Ndiwo zapserera pamoto.
Kalanga ine! Mphale yatayika.

Kukondwa

Zitsanzo

Gule wakoma; woyee!
Hehede! Ndapambana mayeso.
Takondwa! Mwana wathu wakwatiwa.

Kulimbikitsa

Zitsanzo

Malawi, chinya!
Ponya chibakera, gwetsa!
Gwira! Tidyere nyama.

Kukopa chidwi

Zitsanzo

Mtendere! Tikhale pansi.
Aleluya! Mulungu ndi wabwino.
Bungwe lathu, motoo!

MVEKERO

Mvekero ndi maliwu kapena mawu omwe amapereka ganizo.
Mimvekero imatha kuima payokha (mosathandizidwa ndi mawu ena) n’kupereka ganizo lamveka bwino.

MAGULU A MIMVEKERO
Mimvekero imaikidwa m’magulu molingana ndi chiwerengero cha maphatikizo mu tsinde la mvekero.

Mimvekero ya tsinde la phatikizo limodzi Zitsanzo

psuu, guu, ndi nji phaa, phi, thi

puu	phu	pya	tchi	ngo	ndwii	chi
bzee	bee	juu	tchwee	bi	ga	iya
zii	psa	mbwe	see	ndu	njo	nzwii
phwii	khu	mbee	tswii

Mimvekero ya tsinde la maphatikizo awiri

Zitsanzo
tsitu	ngunda	fwasu	gwedze	psiti	yazi	phava
khutcha	thapsa	vwapa	waka	tswere	pholi	thathya
nyaka	lambzi	dedza	nyomi	kong’aa	nete	thedza
dukwe	kweve	nkholi	chubwa	nyoswa	phivi	nenkha

Mimvekero ya tsinde la maphatikizo atatu

Zitsanzo
likhwithi	dangali	dululu	gubidi	pwepwete	ngumbali	kakasi
tololo	tiriri	palantha	chiriri	hephethe	ngwinjiri	setete
dununu	nyotcholi	thoboli	laphathya	lephethe	kwakwata	dipiti
ngundungu	gwembere	pwirikiti	vwetete	kakata	weyere	ziriri

Mimvekero ya tsinde la maphatikizo anayi

Zitsanzo
thakwalala	pholokoto	polokotso	thasalala	gulupati	yangalala
jojoboli	balamanthu	lombokoto	gugubidi	ndundululu	kholophethe
gonkhonono	denkhenene	kwakwalala	piriwi	vwerekete	khokhophotho
yambakata	tutuwiri

Mimvekero ya tsinde lobwereza

Ili ndi gulu la mimvekero yomwe tsinde lawo limabwerezedwa ndipo kawirikawiri imagwiritsidwa ntchito mobwereza momwemo.

Zitsanzo
seyaseya	chikachika	lewulewu	phaluphalu	wemphawempha	bwitibwiti
patipati	tunyatunya	libwalibwa	dichidichi	zopizopi	pichikapichika
chikwichikwi	tawatawa	chinyachinya	punzipunzi

MITUNDU YA MIMVEKERO
Mimvekero imaikidwa mu mitundu yaikulu yotsatirayi.

Mimvekero ya maonekedwe

Mimvekero ya m’mtunduwu imakamba za mtundu (kaonekedwe) wa zinthu.

Zitsanzo

Maso ako ali psu.
Kunja kwangoti ngwe.
Zovala zayera kuti mbe.
M’mera uli biriwiri m’munda.
Chidakwa chili bi ngati mtsiro.

Mimvekero ya mamvekedwe

Mimvekero ya m’mtunduwu imakamba za mamvekedwe a zinthu pathupi, m’makutu, m’kamwa ndi m’mphuno.
Zitsanzo

Thupi lako lili juu. Kodi ukudwala?
Buluzi wagwa kuti phofo.
Ukamva kuti nginde, ndiye kuti afika.
Manyuchi ali tseketseke.
Mwagula sopo yabwino, ili guu.

Mimvekero ya mkhalidwe

Mimvekero ya m’mtunduwu imakamba za kakhalidwe ka chinthu.
Zitsanzo

Mtengowu uli nji.

Vumbwe ali bisale patchire.
Mwangoti du; kodi mwatani?
Ndisenza ndekha mtolowu; uli pepu.
Ali sukwasukwa chifukwa cha mantha.

Mimvekero ya mchitidwe

Mimvekero ya m’mtunduwu imakamba za kachitidwe ka ntchito.
Zitsanzo

Nyani ali chinyachinya m’munda.
Wangoti m’nyumba gubidi, atandiona.
Chidakwa chili dzandidzandi.
Msampha wangoti fwamphu.
Ali yakaliyakali kuthamangira kumsika.

KUSIYANA NDI KUFANAN KWA MFOTOKOZI NDI MLOWAM’MALO
Kusiyana kwa mlowam’malo ndi mfotokozi ndi koti mlowam’malo ndi mawu omwe amaima m’malo mwa dzina pamene mfotokozi ndi mawu omwe amakamba zambiri za dzina kapena mlowam’malo.
Pamalo pamene pachotsedwa dzina ndi pamene mlowam’malo amakhalapo.
Dzina lomwe mlowam’malo amaimira limachotsedwa ndipo silimaonekanso. Komatu tikamakamba za mfotokozi, dzina limafunika kuti lioneke kuti mfotokoziyo agwire ntchito yake pa dzinalo.
Mfotokozi amatha kukambanso zambiri za mlowam’malo.

Zitsanzo

a. Wanu wabwera dzulo. (mlowam’malo)

b. Mwana wanu wabwera dzulo. (mfotokozi)

a. Ndagula zita(mlowam’malo)

b. Ndagula mbuzi zitatu. (mfotokozi)

a. Ichi ndi chabwino. (mlowam’malo)

b. Chingwe ichi ndi chabwino. (mfotokozi)

Kufananirako kwa mlowam’malo ndi mfotokozi ndi koti mitundu yambiri ya mlowam’malo ndi yomweyonso ya mfotokozi.
Mitunduyo ndi monga yaumwini, yochuluka, yofunsa, yoloza ndi yamgwirizano. Zitsanzo

a. Lathu ndi lokongola. (mlowam’malo waumwini)

b. Dziko lathu ndi lokongola. (mfotokozi waumwini)

a. Ndaona asanu. (mlowam’malo wowerenga)

b. Ndaona anthu asanu. (mfotokozi wowerenga)

a. Kodi iye wagula zotan? (mlowam’malo wofunsa)

b. Kodi iye wagula zinthu zotani? (mfotokozi wofunsa)

a. Uyu samva kamodzi. (mlowam’malo woloza)

b. Mnyamata uyu samva kamodzi. (mfotokozi woloza)

a. Yemwe wabwera si mnzanga.(mlowam’malo wamgwirizano)

c. Munthu yemwe wabwera si mnzanga. (mfotokozi wamgwirizano)

Chenjezo

Alowam’malo a dzina lakelake akatsatana ndi mayina amaoneka ngati afotokozi chifukwa amakhala pamalo pomwe afotokozi amakhala. Alowam’malo amenewa amakhalabe alowam’malo osati afotokozi.

Kumbutso

Ena amaganiza kuti dzina likangochotsedwa ndiye kuti nthawi yomweyo mfotokozi (mawu wokamba zambiri za dzinalo) amasanduka dzina kapena mlowam’malo monga zimakhalira mu chingerezi. Izi sizili choncho; mfotokoziyo amakhalabe mfotokozi chifukwa Chichewa chili ndi khalidwe lotaya mchitantchito kapena mchitidwantchito.
Zitsanzo zabwino za afotokozi otere ndi omwe amapangidwa kuchokera ku mayina, aneni, aonjezi ndi masinde enieni a mfotokozi.

Chitsanzo
-Munthu wakufa sadziwika.

M’chiganizochi mfotokozi ndi mawu woti ‘wakufa’ chifukwa akukamba zambiri za dzina ‘munthu’. Tikachotsa dzina loti ‘munthu’, titsala ndi mfotokozi ‘wakufa’. Mawu woti ‘wakufa’ akhalabe mfotokozi chifukwa akukamba zambiri za dzina lomwe latayidwa.
Mphatikiram’mbuyo ‘wa’ mu ‘wakufa’ akutsimikiza kuti mawuwa akukamba za mawu ena omwe ali nawo pamgwirizano ngakhale tawachotsa.

Zitsanzo zina

Amoyo salekana.
Wabwino ali kuti?
Wokongola sanyada.
Wachitatu n’kapasule.
Chamuluma ndi chakuda.

Kumbutso

Afotokozi angapo okamba za dzina limodzi amatha kutsatana mwadongosolo m’chiganizo chimodzi.
Zitsanzo

Mbuzi zakuda zonse zisanu zafa.
Mwana wanu wamtali wofatsa uja ndi wamwano.
Sindinaonepo galu wamkazi wachizungu wokalamba chonchi.

NTHAMBI YA CHIGANIZO

Nthambi ya chiganizo ndi gulu la mawu m’chiganizo lomwe limakhala ndi mchitantchito (mwininkhani) ndi mnenankhani.

MITUNDU YA NTHAMBI ZA CHIGANIZO

Nthambi yoima payokha
Nthambi yosaima payokha

MITUNDU YA NTHAMBI ZOSAIMA PAZOKHA
Nthambi zosaima pazokha zimaikidwa mu mitundu yakeyake itatu yotsatirayi:

Nthambi ya dzina
Nthambi ya mfotokozi
Nthambi ya muonjezi

NTHAMBI YA DZINA
Nthambi ya dzina ndi nthambi yosaima payokha yomwe imagwira ntchito ngati dzina. Nthambiyi ndi yankho la funso ‘chiyani’ kapena ‘kuti chiyani’ kapenanso ‘-yani’ ndi ‘-ti’.

Zitsanzo

Ndi zabodza zoti John wabwera.
Sadaulule zomwe anagwirizana.
Unene chomwe chayambitsa mkanganowu.
Zoti amadyera nyama, si zachilendo.
Ndimadziwa kuti atolankhani ena amalemba zopsetsa mtima.
Ife tamva zimene mwapangana.

NTHAMBI YA MFOTOKOZI
Nthambi ya mfotokozi ndi nthambi yosaima payokha yomwe imagwira ntchito ngati mfotokozi. Nthambiyi imakamba zambiri za dzina kapena mlowam’malo.
Nthambiyi ndi yankho la funso ‘-ti?’ kapena ‘-tani?’. Nthawi zambiri nthambiyi imayamba ndi mawu a mgwirizano (ochokera ku masinde ‘-mene’ kapena ‘-mwe’).

Zitsanzo

Zitatu zomwe zaphedwa ndi zanga.
Ntchito imene munandilonjeza si imeneyi.
Kumudzi komwe ndinabadwira ndi kuno.
Msungwana akubwera apoyo sindimudziwa.
Munthu wofuna kupambana mayeso ayenera kulimbikira.

NTHAMBI YA MUONJEZI
Nthambi ya muonjezi ndi nthambi yosaima payokha imene imagwira ntchito ngati muonjezi.

Zitsanzo

Amaimba monga m’mene amaimbira amake.
Iye akuyenda ngati watopa.
Komwe wachedwa msulu, kuli nyerere.
Ndabisa ndalamazo pamene wina sangazione.
Iye anadabwa madzi atamufika m’khosi.
Papsa tonola poti sudziwa mtima wa moto.
Yesu anafa kuti tipulumuke.
Bwerani mudzaone zomwe ndakugulirani.
Sindipitabe ngakhale mundinyengerere.
Sindipita kumphwandoko pokhapokha andiitane.
Joni waledzera kwabasi moti akungodzigwetsa.
Amalawirira kwambiri kotero simungamupeze.

ZIZINDIKIRO ZA M’KALEMBEDWE

Pamene tikulemba ziganizo, timagwiritsa ntchito zizindikiro za m’kalembedwe zosiyanasiyana molingana ndi zomwe tifuna kuonetsa monga izi: kupuma, kudabwa, kutamula ndi kufunsa.
Zizindikirozo ndi zimene zimatchedwa zizindikiro za m’kalembedwe.

MITUNDU NDI NTCHITO ZA ZIZINDIKIRO ZA M’KALEMBEDWE

Mpumiro

Ichi ndi chizindikiro chomwe chimasonyeza kupuma chifukwa choti ganizo latha. Mpumiro amaikidwa kumapeto kwa chiganizo.
Zitsanzo

Bwerani kuno.
Uzipita kwanu.
Tiziteteza zachilengedwe.

Mpatuliro

Mpatuliro ndi chizindikiro chomwe chimagwiritsidwa ntchito tikafuna kupuma pang’ono pamene tikutchula mawu omwe ali m’mndandanda.
Kawirikawiri mawu a m’mndandandawo amakhala mayina, alowam’malo ndi afotokozi.
Zitsanzo

Mundigulireko nsomba, mchere, anyezi, kale ndi mafuta ophikira.
Kumsonkhano kunali Azungu, Amwenye ndi anthu akuda.
Mwanayo ndi wamfupi, wakuda, wanzeru, waulemu komanso wosekaseka.

Mpatuliro umagwiranso ntchito yopatula nthambi yosaima payokha ku nthambi yoima payokha.
Zitsanzo

Popeza mwandiitana, ndabwera.
Ngakhale kunali mvula, iwo anapitabe kuphwando.
Chalaka bakha, nkhuku singatole.

Mpatuliro umagwiranso ntchito yopatula dzina (kapena kapandamneni) wa dzina lapadera.
Zitsanzo

Naphiri, mphunzitsi, wabwera.
Zuze, chilombo cham’mudzi, wamenyedwa.
Chilema, mtengo wodabwitsa, uli ku Malosa.

Mpatuliro umaikidwanso pambuyo pa mawu omwe ali m’mtengero m’malo mwa mtamuliro.
Zitsanzo

Iye adati, “Chakudza sichiyimba ng’oma.”
Kodi Yohane anati, “Tikumane poduka mphepo”?
“Chabwino,” mayi anayankha, “ndigula nsapatozo.”

Mpatuliro umagwiritsidwanso ntchito pofuna kusonyeza dzina kapena mlowam’malo woitanira.
Zitsanzo

Kodi wadya kale, Yamikani?
Zione, bwera kuno.
Iwe, udzanditule mtsuko.

Mpatuliro umagwiritsidwanso ntchito polemba keyala yopingasa. Kumapeto kwa mzere uliwonse mu keyala yopingasa (kupatula mzere wotsiriza) kumakhala mpatuliro.
Chitsanzo
Kambilonjo pulaimale sukulu,
Positi Ofesi 11,
Kaloga, Ntcheu.

Mpatuliro umagwiritsidwanso ntchito popatula mawu oyankhira (maka aonjezi) ndi mawu otsatira.
Zitsanzo

Chabwino, mubwere mawa.
Inde, ndi zowona kuti ndimamukonda.
Ayi, sindifuna zachipongwe.

Mtamuliro

Mtamuliro ndi chizindikiro chomwe nthawi zambiri chimagwiritsidwa ntchito pofuna kutambasula zomwe zanenedwa kale.
Mtamuliro umatamula (umatchula) mndandanda wa zinthu ndipo umaikidwa patsogolo pa alozi kapena mawu oti ‘monga’ ndi ‘mwachitsanzo’.
Zitsanzo

Mundigulireko zinthu izi: nsapato, malaya ndi mabuku.
Iye anapambana maphunziro atatu awa: Chichewa, Chingerezi ndi Chilatini.
Unditengereko izi: mpeni, mbale ndi mphika.

Mtamuliro umagwiranso ntchito yotsekula mawu omwe amayankhulidwa mwachindunji ndi munthu wina ndipo ali m’mtengero.
Zitsanzo

Zione anati: “Ndifuna kudzakhala mtsogoleri wa dziko.”
Akuluakulu adati: “Ukasowa mn’gona umadya mavu.”
Kamuzu adati: “Chuma cha Malawi chili m’nthaka.”

Mpumirapang’ono

Mpumirapang’ono umagwira ntchito mu chiganizo cha ziganizo zingapo kapena cha nthambi pofuna kupuma motalikirako tisanamalize ganizo. Chizindikirochi chili pakati pa mpatuliro ndi mpumiro.
Chizindikirochi chimaikidwa pamalo pamene pakanatha kuikidwa alumikizi monga awa: ‘chifukwa’, ‘poti’, ‘popeza’, ndi ‘kapena’ pofuna kulumikiza nthambi za chiganizo.
Zitsanzo

M’mudzimo mulibe anthu; onse anasamukamo.
Sindikuperekezani; sindinasambe.
Tsogolani; sindifuna kuti andione.

Tingathe kugwiritsanso ntchito mpumirapang’ono m’chiganizo cha ziganizo chomwe chili ndi ziganizo zotsutsana maganizo ngati sitifuna kugwiritsa ntchito alumukizi monga ‘koma’ ndi ‘ngakhale’.
Zitsanzo

Ndimakonda therere; mayi anga amadana nalo.
Bambo amasuta fodya; ine sindimasuta.
Iye amandikonda; ine sindimukonda.

Mpumirapang’ono umagwiranso ntchito pofuna kupatula magulu akuluakulu a mawu omwe ali ndi zinthu zomwe zili m’mndandanda ndipo alekanitsidwa ndi mipatuliro.
Chitsanzo

Tidzagula nthochi, mbatata ndi buledi kuti tidzadye mawa; mapapaya, mpunga ndi nsomba kuti tidzadye masana; komanso nyama, masikono ndi zakumwa kuti tidzadye ndi kumwa tsiku laphwandolo.

Mfunsiro

Mfunsiro ndi chizindikiro chomwe chimagwira ntchito pofunsa funso lachindunji.
Zitsanzo

Ukuti bwanji?
Kodi wadya?

Wabwera?

Chizindikiro cha mfunsiro sichigwiritsidwa ntchito mu mafunso opanda chindunji.
Zitsanzo

Wandifunsa ngati ndanyamuka kale.
Ndifuna ndidziwe kuti mundipatsa liti.
Mundiuze kuti mungakonde zotani.

Mfuwuliro

Ichi ndi chizindikiro chimene chimalembedwa patsogolo pa mawu omwe ayankhulidwa mofuwula kapena mokuwa pofuna kusonyeza kudzidzimuka, kudabwa, kumva ululu, kusangalala kapena kunyansidwa.
Zitsanzo

Hi! Pali njoka.
Kalanga ine! Ndavulala.
Moto kuno! Motoo!

Nkhodolero

Chizindikirochi chimalembedwa pomwe patsala mpata tikachotsa lembo lina pa mawu, maka lembo lamtsekulanjira (lembo laliwu).
Zitsanzo

m'nyanja (mu nyanja)
n’kale (ndi kale)
cham’gwera (chamugwera)

Pali maphatikizo ena mu Chichewa omwe amakhala ndi nkhodolero yomwe sisonyeza kuti pachotsedwa lembo koma kuti maphatikizowo ndi madzeram’mphuno.
Zitsanzo

ng’amba
ng’ombe
ching’wenyeng’wente

Nthawi zina nkhodolero imaikidwa pa mawu pofuna kusiyanitsa mawuwo ndi mawu ena ofanana nawo m’kalembedwe koma osiyana katchulidwe ndi matanthauzo.
Chitsanzo

mbale ndi m’bale

mbale: chipangizo chodyeramo
m’bale: munthu wobadwa naye bere limodzi kapena banja limodzi

Mdulamawu

Chizindikirochi chimagwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana monga zotsatirazi

Kusonyeza maphatikizo opanga mawu Zitsanzo

Lilongwe (Li-lo-ngwe)
kang’wing’wi (ka-ng’wi-ng’wi)
mphunzitsi (m-phu-nzi-tsi)

Kusonyeza aphatikiri Zitsanzo

mphatikiram’mbuyo:ka-(kanthu), a- (apusi), -na- (anadya), -ku- (tikubwera)
mphatikiram’tsogolo: -era (tengera), -ana (kondana), -etsetsa (onetsetsa)
akulitsi: -nso (bweranso), -be (sungabe), -tu (tengatu), -di (munthudi)

Polemba magulu a mayina

Zitsanzo
Mu-, Mi- ; Li-, Ma- ; Ka-, Ti- ; Chi-, Zi-

Polemba aneni a phatikiro limodzi Zitsanzo

-fa, -gwa, -dya, -mwa, -dza, -cha, -kha

Kumbutso

Sitigwiritsa ntchito mdulamawu polemba mawu ophatikizana ndi achibwereza.
Zitsanzo

njokaluzi (osati njoka-luzi)
kawirikawiri (osati kawiri-kawiri)
tumphatumpha (osati tumpha-tumpha)

Mkutiramawu

Chizindikirochi chimagwira ntchito zotsatirazi:

Kupereka mawu ena ofanana tanthauzo ndi omwe akuyang’anidwa mwachindunji.

Zitsanzo

Iye wachita kaguni (manyazi) atamuseka.
Galu wanu wapha nkhawena (nkhanga) yanga.

Kupereka tanthauzo la mawu amatanthauzo apatali monga zining’a.

Zitsanzo

Ndi zowona kuti iwo ayenda chogona (amwalira).
Nkhaniyi yandidulitsa mutu wa zizwa (yandidabwitsa).

Kutambasula langizo kuti limveke bwino.

Zitsanzo

Lembani ziganizo zomveka bwino ndi zining’a zotsatirazi kuti mukudziwa matanthauzo ake (chining’a chimodzi pa chiganizo chimodzi).
Nyumbayo ndiyosasowa kwenikweni chifukwa ngakhale mwana amaidziwa. Ngati mungasokere, mutha kufunsa (koma osafunsa anthu okaikitsa).

Mtengero

Ntchito yaikulu ya chizindikiro chimenecho ndi kukuta zomwe munthu wina wayankhula (zoyankhula mwini).
Zitsanzo

Iye anati, “Kwapsa tonola sudziwa mtima wa moto.”
“Ndabwera,” John anandiuza, “kudzaona amayi.”
“Kodi mwadya kale?” mnzanga anandifunsa.

Mtengero umagwiritsidwanso ntchito pokuta mitu ya m’buku, ndakatulo, nyimbo, nthano za makolo, nkhani zazifupi ndi nkhani zazitali.
Zitsanzo

Onani mu buku la Mbiri ya Achewa za “Ufumu wa Mkanthama Mwale” pa tsamba 120.
Ine sindinawerengeko ndakatulo yotchedwa “Chilola wopanda mano” ndi nkhani yayifupi ya “Zina ukaona”.
Wambali Mkandawire anaimba nyimbo ya “Kujipereka”.

Mitengero imaikidwa mu mitundu yaikulu iwiri iyi:

Mtengero wa mphini ziwiriziwiri “.... ”
Mtengero wa mphini imodziimodzi ‘....... ’

MALEMBO AAKULU

Malembo amalembedwa potsata malamulo. Sitimangolemba malembo chilembelembe.
Malembo aakulu ali ndi malo ake omwe ayenera kulembedwapo. Kalembedwe ka malembo aakulu kotsata malamulo kali motere:

Pamene tiyamba kulemba chiganizo, mawu wayamba amakhala ndi lembo lalikulu.

Zitsanzo

Ulimi wothirira ndi waphindu.
Akuti akupezani posachedwapa.

Poyamba kulemba mayina a mwinimwini.

Zitsanzo

Mtsinje wa Shire ndi waukulu.
Dziko la Malawi ndi lamtendere.
Dzina lake ndi Zikomo Banda.

Polemba malonje a kalata timayamba kulemba dzina la amene tikumulembera ndi lembo lalikulu ngangale dzinalo likhale dzina lopanda mwinimwini.

Zitsanzo

Okondedwa Bambo ndi Mayi.
Wokondedwa Bwana.

Mu nthano za makolo ndi zisudzo za nyama, mayina a apangankhani komanso a atengambali amayamba ndi malembo aakulu ngakhale akhale mayina opanda mwinimwini.

Zitsanzo

Chibwenzi cha Fisi ndi Mkango chinali chachinyengo.
Mu nkhalango ya Matsano, mnzake wa Fulu anali Kalulu.

Mu zoyankhula mwini, mawu a m’mtengero amayamba ndi lembo lalikulu.

Zitsanzo

Iwo anakalipa, “Chokani ophunzira osamva!”
Iye anati, ‘Khalani pansi.’

NTCHITO ZA ‘NDI’

“ndi” amagwira ntchito zotsatirazi:

Kukhala mneni Zitsanzo

Iye ndi mnzanga.
Mudzi wathu ndi wamtendere.

Kukhala mlumikizi

Zitsanzo

Anyamata ndi atsikana akuphunzira.
Iwo agula nsomba ndi nyama.

Kukhala mperekezi

Zitsanzo

Ndabwera ndi mnzanga.
Ali ndi ndalama zambiri.

Kukhala mvekero

Zitsanzo

Mutu wanga uli ndi.
Mumange mtolowo kuti ndi.

Kukhala mgwirizanitsi wa mchitantchito (mwininkhani)

Zitsanzo

Ndipita kwathu.
Ine sindifuna mwana wamwano.

Kukhala mgwirizanitsi wa mchitidwantchito (pamtherankhani)

Zitsanzo

Iwo andigulira cholembera.
Ndikufuna mundiphikire therere.

MABUKU
MIE (2008), Buku la Ophunzira la Chichewa la Maphunziro a M’sukulu Zauphunzitsi (IPTE), Domasi; MIE Wisdom A. Nkhoma (2015). Kuphunzira Chichewa: Chancellor College Publications
Malamulo achiyankhulo mogwirizana ndi silabasi ya M.S.C.E

UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
UNIT 2 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 3 THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
UNIT 4 FLOWERING AND NON FLOWERING PLANTS
UNIT 5 POLLINATION, FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL
UNIT 6 SEED GERMINATION
UNIT 7 TECHNOLOGIES THAT CAN BE MADE IN THE SCHOOL FOR MARKETING
UNIT 8 CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES
UNIT 9 THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
UNIT 10 VERTEBRATES
UNIT 11 INVERTEBRATES
UNIT 12 PARTS OF A PLANT
UNIT 13 METHODS OF COOKING
UNIT 14 MEALS FOR SEDENTARY WORKERS AND MANUAL WORKERS
UNIT 15 LAUNDERING A SHIRT AND A BLOUSE
UNIT 16 TECHNOLOGIES FOR HOME USE
UNIT 17 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT, HEAT AND SOUND
UNIT 18 FORCES
UNIT 19 NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES
UNIT 20 DYEING MATERIALS
UNIT 21 MACHINES
UNIT 22 GROWING UP
REFERENCES

UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

STAGES OF A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

There are six stages of scientific investigation. These are:

Knowing the problem
Making a prediction
Planning the investigation
Carrying out the investigation
Making meaning of the results
Making conclusions

These six stages can be summarized into three main stages which are:

Planning stage
Implementation stage
Concluding stage

PLANNING STAGE
This stage involves a number of steps.

The first step is to identify the problem to be investigated.

The second step is to write the statement of the problem in the form of a question The third step is to predict or guess the answer to the question or problem.
The predicted answer is called a hypothesis.

The next step is to identify what is going to be observed and measured.

These are the factors that would affect the results of the investigation which are called variables. A variable is anything that can change.

The next step is to identify the materials that will be required to carry out the investigation.

The last step of the planning stage is to come up with steps to be followed in the process of collecting data.

The above steps of the planning stage of an investigation are summarised as follows:
Step 1 identifying the problems to be investigated

Step 2 writing a statement of the problem to be investigated in the form of a question

Step 3 predicting or guessing the answer to the question, that is, coming up with a hypothesis

Step 4 identifying the variables

Step 5 identifying the materials required for carrying out the investigation

Step 6 coming up with the procedures for carrying out the investigation

IMPLEMENTATION STAGE
The second stage of a scientific investigation involves implementing the plans that were developed during the planning stage.
This is the stage which the hypothesis are tested by carrying out the investigation.

During this stage, the variables to be investigated are deliberately changed while keeping the other variables constant.
The variables that are changed are observed and recorded as the investigation is being conducted. The purpose of carrying out an investigation is to collect data through observation.
If one is not satisfied with the data that has been collected, it is necessary to repeat the procedures. The data that is collected should be organised and presented in a meaningful way.
There are several ways of presenting data. These include tables and graphs.

When presenting data in the form of a graph, it is important to remember that:

a sharp pencil should be used when drawing graph lines
each graph should be given a title
a scale that can give a large graph sould be chosen so that points are plotted accurately
the vertical and horizontal axes should be labelled and the units for each axis should be shown
a line of best fit should be drawn if points do not lie on a straight line or smooth curve

When data has been collected, it should be organised in such a way that it is meaningful. The procedures of organizing data are referred to as data analysis.
One way of analysing data is the use of graphs.

Once the data has been analysed, there is need to interpret it.

The interpretation of data involves determining the relationship between variables using the analysed data.

The methods of determining the relationships between variables include:

Looking for patterns of data in a table
Interpreting the shapes of graph lines

In summary, the implementation stage of scientific investigation involves the following:
Step 1 carrying out the investigation according to the plans. Step 2 collecting data and presenting it in a meaningful way. Step 3 analyzing the collected data.
Step 4 interpreting the analyzed data.

CONCLUDING STAGE
The last stage of a scientific investigation is the concluding stage.

During this stage, the hypothesis is evaluated against the interpretation of the data.

That is, the relationship between variables that has been determined from the data is compared with the hypothesis of the investigation.
If the determined relationship from the analysed data agrees with the hypothesis then the hypothesis becomes the conclusion of the investigation.
If the hypothesis is different from the relationship determined from the results of the investigation then the hypothesis is not true.
What is important is that the conclusion must be based on the results of the investigation and not on the investigator’s wishes.

UNIT 2 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF HUMAN BEINGS

The male reproductive parts or organs are:

the testes
the penis

The testes produce and store the sperm.

The penis is for reproduction and for passing out urine.

The female reproductive parts are:

the ovaries
the fallopian tubes or oviducts
the uterus
the vagina

Egg cells are produced in the ovaries.

The egg travels through the oviducts or fallopian tubes.

The vagina is the passage for sperm during sexual intercourse and is also the birth canal.

FERTILIZATION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Reproduction in human beings involves special sex cells. These sex cells are the egg and sperm.
The sperm is the male sex cell while the egg is the female sex cell.

During mating, the penis is inserted into the vagina. The seminal fluid which contains millions of sperm is then released into the vagina.

Sperm and egg cell unite Fertilization is the union of the sperm and egg (ovum).
After fertilization has happened, the fertilized egg moves down the fallopian tube to the uterus as it develops into an embryo.
In the uterus, the embryo attaches itself to the wall. The umbilical cord joins the embryo to the mother.

An embryo attached to uterus wall

The developed embryo usually takes about nine months before it is ready to be born.

When a baby is born it grows into a child, an adolescent and finally becomes an adult.

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT PREGNANCY
Some teenagers have misconceptions about pregnancy.

They think that a girl cannot have pregnancy if she does the following:

has sexual intercourse once
stands up and urinates soon after sexual intercourse
washes the vagina soon after sexual intercourse
wears a herbal string around her waist
has sexual intercourse while standing
has sexual intercourse while in water

UNIT 3: THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE HUMAN BRAIN
The human brain is located in the skull.

It consists of three main parts:

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata

CEREBRUM
Cerebrum is the front and largest part of the brain.

It is responsible for:

Thinking
Speech
Movement of muscles
Control of senses

CEREBELLUM
Cerebellum is the middle part of the brain.

It is responsible for:

controlling balance
posture
coordination.

MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Medulla oblongata is the part below the cerebellum

It is responsible for:

controlling body activities such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure and digestion.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BRAIN AND SENSE ORGANS

The brain is connected to different sense organs through nerves, via the spinal cord. The sense organs are eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue.

EFFECTS OF DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE ON THE BRAIN

Mental disorders
Poisoning
Suffocation
Intoxication
Damage of nerve cells and brain cells
Injury
Depression
Death

CAUSES OF DAMAGE TO THE BRAIN

Neck and back injuries
Blows to the head
Diseases

WAYS OF TAKING CARE FOR THE BRAIN

Getting plenty of rest
Doing regular exercises
Eating meals that are well balanced at regular times
Avoiding smoking and drinking alcohol
Avoiding abusing of drugs and substances
Reducing levels of stress and relaxing

UNIT 4 FLOWERING AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

There are two major groups of plants:

Flowering plants
Non-flowering plants

FLOWERING PLANTS
Flowering plants produce flowers.

Examples of flowering plants are maize, rice, mangoes and beans

NON-FLOWERING PLANTS
Non-flowering plants do not produce flowers.

Examples are algae (ndele), mosses, liverworts, ferns, mushrooms, lichens, pine and cedar.

USES OF FLOWERING AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

Provision of food
Source of medicine
Provision of building materials
Source of fuel
Source of paper making materials
Source of furniture
Source of clothes
Sources of income
Helps in prevention of soil erosion

PARTS OF A FLOWER

A flower has internal and external parts.
The stamen is the male part of a flower consisting of the anther and the filament. The pistil is the female part of the flower. It consists of the stigma, style and ovary. The ovary keeps ovules which develop into seeds.
The ovary becomes a fruit.

The stamen, petals and sepals wither and fall off when the fruit has been formed.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A FLOWER

Part of a flower	Function
Flower stalk	Holds and connects the flower to the whole plant
Sepal	Encloses and protects the developing flower before it comes out
Petal	Attracts pollination agents such as birds and insects
Ovary	Keeps ovules which grow into seeds
Anthers	Produce pollen grains
Filaments	Holds anthers

Stigma	Receives pollen from anthers
Style	Connects stigma and the ovary
Ovules	Develop into seeds

UNIT 5: POLLINATION, FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL

POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

Flowers are important parts of plants. They are reproductive parts.
Reproduction takes place through the processes of pollination and fertilization.

POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma.

There are different types of pollination. These are:

Self pollination
Cross pollination

Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant.

Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of another flower on another plant of the same kind.

Things that help the transfer of pollen from anthers to the stigma are called agents of pollination. These include bees, butterflies, birds, wind and water.

INSECT AND WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS
Insect pollinated flowers are different from wind pollinated flowers.. The following table shows some of the differences.

INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS	WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS
Flowers are large to be easily seen	Flowers are usually small
Petals are usually brightly coloured	Petals are dull coloured
They produce scent to attract insects	They have no scent
They produce nectar	They have no nectar
Small quantities of sticky pollen are produced	Large quantities of light pollen grains are produced
Anthers hold firmly	Anthers hang loosely so that pollen can be blown away easily

FERTILISATION

Fertilization is the union of male gamete and female gamete.

When a pollen grain lands on stigma, it grows to form a tube called a pollen tube which grows towards the ovule.
The pollen tube continues to grow down the style until it reaches one of the ovules in ovary.

When this happens the male part (male gamete) contained in the pollen tube unites with the female part (female gamete) inside the ovule to form a zygote.
The zygote develops into a seed.

The following instruction shows pollen tubes growing towards ovules.

After fertilization has taken place, the petals, stamen and style wither. The ovary then develops into a fruit.

HOW FRUITS AND SEEDS ARE DISPERSED
Fruits and seeds can be scattered from the parent plant.

Dispersal is the scattering of fruits and seeds from the parent plant.

There are different ways and agents by which fruits and seeds can be dispersed. These include wind, animals, explosive mechanism and water.
Fruits and seeds which are dispersed by wind are light and have wing-like structures or hairs. These features help the fruits and seeds to be carried away from the parent plant by wind.

Examples of fruits and seeds which can be dispersed by wind are those from cotton, Tridax and m’bawa.
The following illustration shows some of the examples of wind dispersed fruits and seeds.

Fruits and seeds that are dispersed by animals are either succulent or have hook-like features or sticky fluid which make them to stick to the body of animals or clothes.
Large, brightly coloured or scented fruits also attract animals and in the process dispersion can take place.
Examples of fruits and seeds that are dispersed by animals include oranges, tomatoes, black jack, guavas, mangoes, hedgehog grass and peaches.
The following illustration shows some examples of fruits and seeds that can be dispersed by animals.

Fruits and seeds that can be dispersed by water are less dense than water. An example of fruits that can be dispersed by water is a coconut fruit.

The following illustration shows a coconut fruit.

Some fruits and seeds are dispersed by explosive mechanism (bursting). These fruits and seeds have pods.
When the pods have dry, they suddenly open and scatter the seeds away from parent plant due to the expansion and contraction of the pods.
Examples of seeds that can be dispersed in this way are castor oil, peas, beans and chitedze. The following illustration shows some seeds that can be dispersed by explosive mechanism.

Fruit dispersal and seed dispersal are important because they help to scatter fruits and seeds thereby reducing the competition for space, air, moisture and mineral salts.
Plants grow well when they are well spaced.

UNIT 6 SEED GERMINATION

CONDITIONS FOR SEED GERMINATION
For a seed to germinate, it requires moisture, warmth and air.

It is possible to show through experiments that these conditions are necessary for seeds to germinate.

The illustrations below show the external and internal parts of a bean seed.
During germination, a bean seed undergoes five stages. The illustrations below show the stages.

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A SEED

Parts of a seed	Function
Seed coat or testa	Protects the inner parts of the seed from damage
cotyledon	Contains food reserves which are used during germination
Plumule	The upper parts of the embryo which grows into the shoot
Radicle	Develops into the root system
Micropyle	Allows water and air to enter the seed
Scar (hilum)	For attachment to the pod

UNIT 7 TECHNOLOGIES THAT CAN BE MADE IN THE SCHOOL FOR MARKETING

TYPES OF TOYS
Toys can classified in a number of ways.

One way of classifying toys is based on the materials which have been used to make them.

Toys can be made from materials such as wood, rubber, maize pith, wire, clay, paper, plastic and cartons.
The table below shows the classification of toys based on materials used.

Materials used	Types of toy
Wood	Wooden toys
Wire	Wire toys
Clay	Clay toys
Paper	Paper toys
Plastic	Plastic toys
Rubber	Rubber toys
cartons	Carton toys

The following are examples of toys made from different materials.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN COSTING TOYS

Amount of materials used
Time spent in making the toys

Attractiveness of the finished product
Age group meant for the toy
Availability of the toy
Durability of the toy
Quality of the materials used
Demand
Cost of the materials, if bought

WAYS OF MARKETING TOYS

Advertising
Making a display of the finished products
Organizing a showcase

UNIT 8 CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES

CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES
There are different technologies that are used for teaching and learning in a classroom such as papers, radios, computers, calculators, rulers, chalkboards, pens, dusters, pairs of compasses and pencil sharpeners.
Teaching and learning can be difficult without these resources.

Where these resources are not available, it is necessary to improvise them.

Some problems of the technologies that are used in the classroom and their possible solutions.

Technologies	problems	Possible
Chalkboard	Not durable Lack of care Lack of maintenance	Hiring specialist contractors and evaluating their work. Use of proper materials on the chalkboards Proper storage for portable chalkboard Maintaining the chalkboard when need arises
radio	High cost Theft Lack of care Personalizing use Poor reception	Resource mobilization by involving PTA Civic educate the stakeholders Maintain a tracking ledger Have a strong room Have a time table for using the radio
ruler	Some learners cannot afford them	Improvise
paper	Expensive Abuse of the resources	Practice paper recycling Civic educate the stakeholders

IMPROVISATION OF CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES
Some of the technologies used in the classroom can be improvised.

Examples of technologies that can be improvised are chalkboards, rulers, pental markers, papers and protractors.

Improvised portable chalkboard

An improvised portable chalkboard consists of stands which are made of bamboo or planks and a board painted black or green.

Improvised chalkboard ruler

A chalkboard ruler can be made from a straight plank and marked using a standard ruler. Other materials that can be used are bamboo, cardboard paper and a hard plastic strip.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IMPROVISED CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES

Advantage	Disadvantage
Materials are locally available Encourage creativity Assist in the teaching and learning process	Usually not durable Time consuming when making the technologies May not be precise

CARE AND STORAGE OF CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES
Different improvised materials might require different ways of storing and safe keeping. The materials can be stored in boxes, on stands, shelves or hangers.

UNIT 9 THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

MEANING OF DIGESTION
Digestion is the process by which insoluble food, consisting of large molecules, is broken down into small soluble molecules.
The small molecules, in solution form, pass through the walls of the intestine and enter the blood stream.
Digestion and absorption of food take place in the alimentary canal.

PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and related organs.

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth : where food is physically broken down and mixed with saliva
Tongue: helps to shape food into boluses for easy swallowing
Epiglottis: a flap which directs food into the oesophagus (gullet)
Stomach: muscular sac which stores food for a short time
Pyloric sphincter: a ring of muscles which controls the passage of food
Bile duct: a passage through which bile passes to the small intestines
Pancreas: a gland that secretes pancreatic juice
Small intestines: where digestion of food is completed and digestible materials are absorbed
Large intestine (colon): absorbs water from the undigested food
Rectum: keeps undigested residues ready to be expelled at intervals through the anus
Anus: where undigested residues are expelled from the body.

PROBLEMS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Constipation : a condition where one has difficulties in emptying the bowels
Haemorrhoids (piles): a condition which results when a constipated patient uses increased effort to remove hard faeces. It is characterized by swelling of veins near the opening of the anus.
Intestinal ulcers: open sores in the intestines.
Intestinal parasites (such as roundworms and hookworms): they interfere with the digestion and absorption of food.

Diarrhoea: an intestinal infection characterized by watery faeces

CARE FOR THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Eating foods rich in dietary fibre such as fruits and vegetables
Resting after taking meals
Taking a lot of fluids including water
Doing exercises regularly
Washing foods before eating, especially fruits, to avoid intestinal infections
Eating complete meals at regular intervals during the day

UNIT 10 VERTEBRATES

VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates are animals with a backbone.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates are classified into five groups which are mammals, fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds.

The following table shows the group of vertebrates, their characteristics and examples.

Vertebrates	General characteristics	Example
Fish	Scaly bodies Gills and fins Laying eggs	Chambo, cat fish, utaka and usipa
amphibians	Moist skin No scales Four limbs Webbed feet Presence of lungs Laying eggs Live on land and water	Toad and frog
Reptiles	Dry scaly skin Laying eggs Presence of limbs in some animals Breathing using lungs	Snake, tortoise, chameleon and lizard
Birds	Presence of feathers Scaly feet Beak Two legs	Chicken, duck, pigeon and peacock

Mammals

Having mammary glands (breasts)
Hair or fur on the body
Presence of external ears with a soft flap called the pinna
Bearing live young ones

Mouse, pig, monkey and people

MOVEMENT OF FISH
Fish move in water by swimming.

They have fins and a streamlined body which make them possible to move rapidly in water. The following illustration shows the external parts of a fish.

TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF FINS
The key function of fins is to help the fish balance and turn as it swims.

Dorsal fin

Dorsal fin protects the fish against rolling, and assists in sudden turns and stops.

Ventral (pelvic) fin

Ventral fin assists with moving up and down through the water, turning sharply and stopping quickly

Caudal (tail) fin

Caudal fin is the main propelling fin in most fish

Anal fin

Anal fin helps to maintain stable equilibrium

Pectoral fins

A pair of fins used for balancing and braking

Adipose fins

Adipose fin’s function not yet proven by scientists. Some said it serves as a pre-caudal flow

PROTECTION MECHANISMS USED BY SOME VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates have different mechanisms for protecting themselves.

These include biting, changing colour (camouflage), producing a hissing sound, running away, good eye sight and hiding.

UNIT 11 INVERTEBRATES

INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates can be classified into four groups, namely, protozoa, worms, molluscs and arthropods.

Protozoa

These are also called microscopic animals.

Some of them live in seawater or fresh water while others live in bodies of other animals. Examples of protozoa include amoebas, plasmodia and trypanosome.
Amoebas are found in the mud in ponds.

They reproduce by dividing into two in a process called binary fission.

Binary fission is an example of asexual reproduction which does not involve the fusion of male and female gametes.

Worms

Worms can further be classified into the following groups:

Flatworms

Flatworms can be divided into two groups. These are free-living and parasites.
Planaria are examples of free-living flatworms while flukes and tapeworms are parasites. Blood flukes cause bilharzia in human beings.

Roundworms

Roundworms are also known as nematodes.

Some of the roundworms are free-living while others are parasites.

Ascaris, hookworms, filarial worms, and pinworms are examples of roundworms.

Segmented worms These are also called annelida.

They include earthworms and leeches.

The body of the worm is divided into several segments, hence the name segmented worms.

Molluscs

Molluscs are animals with shells.

Molluscs have soft and non-segmented bodies.

Examples of molluscs are snails, octopuses, slugs, oysters. Many of molluscs live in water.

Arthropods

These are animals with jointed legs.

Arthropods form the largest group of invertebrates which include insects, crabs, millipedes and spiders.

THREE MAIN COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTHROPODS

segmented body
have an exoskeleton
pairs of jointed legs

LIFE CYCLE OF A HOUSEFLY AND A GRASSHOPPER
Insects lay eggs which hatch into larvae.

In some insects larva changes to a pupa that develops into the adult form or imago.

The development in stages of an insect from the young to the adult is called metamorphosis.

There are two types of metamorphosis, namely, complete metamorphosis and incomplete metamorphosis.
In complete metamorphosis, an egg hatches into a larva, a larva develops into a pupa, which finally develops into imago or adult form.
Incomplete metamorphosis does not have pupa stage.

Insects such as houseflies and mosquitoes undergo complete metamorphosis.

Insects such as grasshoppers, bugs, termites and cockroaches undergo incomplete metamorphosis

ADVANTAGES OF INVERTEBRATES

Insects such as honey-bees and butterflies pollinate flowers which lead to the formation of seeds in flowering plants
Bees produce honey which can be used as food and medicine, and can also be a source of income
Source of food for humans, for example crabs and white ants
Some of the invertebrates such as ladybird beetles and certain ants can be used in the biological control of pest – the invertebrates can feed on certain pests
Some of the invertebrates help in aerating and improving soil fertility, for example, earthworms

Life cycle of a grasshopper

DISADVANTAGES OF INVERTEBRATES

Some insects such as locusts can damage crops
Some invertebrates are carriers of diseases, for example, mosquitoes can transmit malarial parasites (plasmodia); houseflies can transmit diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera; and tsetse flies are carriers of sleeping sickness
Invertebrates such as scorpions, bees and certain spiders can be harmful to humans when they sting or bite
Worms such as tapeworms, roundworms, pinworms and hookworms can infect humans and other animals and cause suffering.

UNIT 12 PARTS OF A PLANT

TYPES OF LEAVES AND ARRANGEMENT
There are different types of leaves.

The types can be explained in terms of their shape, arrangement and how they are attached to the stem.
There are various shapes of leaves.

The following illustration below shows some of the shapes of leaves

There are different leaf arrangements.

Some of these are shown in the following illustration below

There are two ways in which a leaf is attached to the stem.

One way is when a leaf is attached to a stem with a leaf stalk, for example: mango, tobacco, groundnuts and bluegum leaves.
Another way is when a leaf is attached to a stem without a leaf stalk, for example, maize, sisal, onion, and grass leaves.

Some leaves are simple while others are compound.

A simple leaf has one leaf blade attached to a leaf stalk.

A compound leaf has more than one leaf blade attached to a leaf stalk. The following instruction shows examples of simple and compound leaves.

a simple leaf a compound leaf

TYPES OF STEMS
There are different types of stems.

These include:

Erect
Creeping
Climbing
Underground

ERECT STEMS
Erect stems stand upright.

Examples of erect stems are those of maize, okra, bluegum, mango and pawpaw.

The illustration below shows examples of erect stems.
CREEPING STEMS
Creeping stems grow along the ground and produce roots as they grow on the ground, for example, kapinga grass, sweet potato and strawberry.

The following illustration below shows examples of creeping stem.
CLIMBING STEMS
Climbing stems have weak stems and they seek the support of standing objects to secure an upright position.
They do so by using tendrils and twisting around another plant.

Examples include pumpkins, Chitedze, kalongonda, granadilla and white haricot beans (kayera).

The following illustration shows examples of climbing stems

UNDERGROUND STEMS
Underground stems grow under the ground.

Some examples of underground stems are Irish potatoes, bananas, bamboos, and many grasses.

The following instruction show example underground stems.
An Irish potato has curved marks looking like eyebrows. These are buds. An Irish potato is a stem because it has buds.
Note that a sweet potato is a root while an irish potato is a stem.

This is because sweet potato tubers are not normally used when planting sweet potatoes. Stem cuttings are used when propagating sweet potatoes.

TYPES OF ROOTS
There are different types of roots.

These include:

Tap roots
Fibrous roots
Adventitious roots
Prop roots
Aerial roots
Tuberous roots

A TAP ROOT
A tap root grows deeper and bigger as a plant grows. In woody stems, other roots branch from the tap root. Trees and shrubs have tap roots.
They keep the big trees fixed to the ground firmly to stop them from falling.

The following illustration below shows a tap root system
FIBROUS ROOTS
Fibrous roots grow spreading from the base of the stem. The roots are small, thin and normally similar in size.
Examples include maize plant and grass roots.

The following illustration shows fibrous roots

TUBEROUS ROOTS
Tuberous roots do not have buds.

Examples of tuberous roots are carrots, cassava, sweet potato and turnips.

The following illustration below shows tuberous roots

ADVENTITOUS ROOTS
Adventitious roots grow from the base of underground stem, for example onions.

The following illustration shows adventitious roots.
PROP ROOTS
Prop roots develop from the lower nodes of a plant and extend down into the soil.

Prop roots can be found growing on plants such as rice, wheat, oats, sorghum, maize, elephant grass and bamboo.

The following illustration below shows prop roots.

AERIAL ROOTS
Aerial roots grow on stems of plants such as kachere and mkundi. These roots grow outside the soil.

The following illustration below show aerial roots.

UNIT 13 METHODS OF COOKING

STEWING AS A METHOD OF COOKING
Stewing is a method of cooking food in a liquid for a long time to soften it. The food is cooked below the boiling point.
Stewing can be done on an open fire, on top of a stove or in an oven.

ADVANTAGES OF STEWING

It does not need constant attention
Tough pieces of meat are made tender.
No loss of nutrients because the liquid is served with the food
The food looks attractive and appetizing

DISADVANTAGES OF STEWING

Very slow method of cooking
Uses a lot of fuel

GUIDELINES FOR STEWING

Cut the food into even small pieces to expose the maximum surface area to heat
Keep the temperature just below boiling point
Add just enough liquid to cover the food
Use a fitting lid on a container
Serve the food and liquid together.

SUITABLE FOODS FOR STEWING
Suitable foods for stewing include tough pieces of meat, fish, beans, peas, fresh and dried fruits. The following is an example of a recipe using the stewing method

Stewed beef with vegetables

Ingredients

500g beef 2 onions
2 tomatoes
4 Irish potatoes
2 carrots
200g green peas Salt and pepper Oil for fry

Method

Clean the meat and cut it into pieces
Heat oil and brown the meat lightly
Peel vegetables. Cut potatoes in half and slice other vegetables
Add these to the meat and fry lightly. Add peas.
Cover with a liquid and season to taste.
Simmer till meat is tender then serve.

FRYING AS A METHOD OF COOKING
This is a method of cooking food in hot fat or oil. There are three methods of frying food.
Namely: dry frying, shallow fat frying and deep fat frying.

Dry frying

No fat or oil is used in this method. Food cooks in its own fat.
This method is suitable for very oily foods such as sausages, bwanoni, mafulufute, ngumbi and oily fish.

Shallow fat frying

This method uses just enough fat or oil to cover the bottom of the frying pan to prevent the food from sticking to it.
Food is turned over to cook on both sides.

Suitable foods for shallow fat frying include chicken, eggs, pancakes and fish.

Deep fat frying

This method requires plenty of fat or oil, about half of the deep frying pan. The food is completely immersed or covered with fat or oil.
Suitable foods for deep fat frying include doughnuts, fritters, chicken, fish and chips.

ADVANTAGES OF FRYING

No loss of soluble nutrients
The food looks attractive and has good flavour
A quick method of cooking
Fuel is saved

DISADVANTAGES OF FRYING

Plenty of fat or oil is needed and it is expensive
Needs constant attention to prevent food from burning
The food is not easily digested, if not well cooked and drained.

Guidelines for frying

Coat the food if necessary, either in seasoned flour, eggs and bread crumbs or batter.
Put the food into the pan carefully to avoid splashing, and add only a few pieces
Heat clean fat or oil in a suitable pan at the correct temperature. This is about 1800C but varies according to the food.
When food is cooked, take it out and drain any excess oil.

The following is an example of recipe using frying method

Frying banana fritters

Ingredients

4 ripe bananas 15g of sugar
1 egg 125ml milk
Oil for frying 200g flour

Method

Peel and mash the bananas
Add sugar and one beaten egg
Add milk and flour
Drop a spoonful of batter in hot fat and fry on both sides
Sprinkle with sugar and serve.

UNIT 14 MEALS FOR SEDENTARY WORKERS AND MANUAL WORKERS

SEDENTARY AND MANUAL WORKERS
People doing various types of work should have their nutritional needs met properly.

These people may be employed elsewhere or may be doing different types of work at home. Manual workers and sedentary workers are two basic categories of people doing work.

SEDENTARY WORKERS
These are people who are not involved in heavy work.

Their work is usually light and it is mostly done while sitting down in one place.

Sedentary workers are usually office workers such as secretaries, managers, television and radio presenters, reporters, lawyers, pilots, administrators, telephone operators and drivers.

Guidelines for planning meals for sedentary workers

Be nutritionally balanced
Not contain too much fat or oils as they do not need too much energy
Contain foods from all the six food groups to provide variety in their diet

Below are some sample menus for sedentary workers

Sample breakfast	Sample lunch or supper
Orange juice Rice porridge Coffee with milk	Stewed fish Nsima Boiled nkhwani lemonade

Cooking and serving meals for sedentary workers

Avoid frying food for sedentary workers because fried foods take a lot of time to digest
Sedentary workers do not need a lot of energy. Therefore, cooking methods for their food should not require a lot of fat or oil

Cook food using boiling, stewing, roasting, grilling, baking, and steaming methods
Vegetables and fruit salads are ideal for sedentary workers
Serve meals in small quantities attractively in clean plates
Provide a variety of foods at each meal to avoid monotony
If the food is to be taken away, pack it in clean containers

MANUAL WORKERS
Manual workers are people who do heavy work.

These people spend a lot of energy and lose a lot of water and salt through sweeting.

Examples of manual work include gardening, chopping wood, moulding bricks and carrying heavy things such as bags of maize or rice.

Guidelines for planning meals for manual workers

Contain more energy giving foods
Contain foods from all the six food groups
Be nutritionally balanced
Contain adequate protein, vegetables and plenty of fluids
Provide a variety of foods at each meal to avoid monotony
Be packed properly in clean containers if it is to be taken away

Below are sample menus for manual workers

Sample breakfast	Sample lunch or supper
Lemon juice Mgaiwa porridge Tea with milk	Stewed dried fish Mgaiwa nsima Boiled nkhwani with groundnut flour Pineapples

Cooking and serving for manual workers
Cooking promotes palatability and digestibility of foods.

Food for manual workers should be cooked using suitable methods of cooking. Hence, meals for manual workers can be boiled, fried, stewed, roasted or baked.
Combining several foods in one pot helps to increase energy value of the foods especially if the foodstuffs used are of high energy value.
Such foods may include groundnut flour in vegetables or porridge, potatoes in meat, bean or chicken stew, fats such as margarine and butter in porridge or on bread and sugar in sweet dishes.

UNIT 15 LAUNDERING A SHIRT AND A BLOUSE

STAINS
Laundry involve a lot of processes.

One of such processes is removing stains from garments and articles.

A stain is a discoloured mark caused by spilling of foods and liquids on garments and articles. These stains cannot be removed by the normal way of washing.

There are many different types of stains which can discolour our garments and articles.

These stains are classified according to their origins:

Animal stains: egg, milk, blood and perspiration
Vegetable stains: tea, coffee, cocoa and grass
Mineral stains: rust, ink and dyes.
Other stains: soot, grease, tar and wax.

How these stains are treated depends on the chemical nature of the stain, the age of the stain, texture and colour fastness of the fabric stained.
However it is important to remove the stains before the normal washing of clothes because the washing process tends to fix some stains.

For good results, it is advisable to identify the cause of the stains and remove them as soon as they occur.

STAIN REMOVAL

General principles of stain removal

When removing stains start with water and then use reagents. Begin with cold water, followed by hot water and later boiling water.
If water alone fails, use soap solution and washing powders.
If the stain is stubborn, repeat the steps 1 and 2. If it persists, use bleaches, absorbents such as salt, blotting paper and solvents such as paraffin and benzene and methylated spirits.

WAYS OF REMOVING COMMON STAINS

Tea, coffee and cocoa These are vegetable stains.

They usually contain acid.

To remove them, pour boiling water through the stain at once. If it is not removed, use ammonia or borax and boiling water.
If it persists repeat the process

Fruit and wine

These are vegetable stains.

For fresh stains, cover with salt at once and pour boiling water. If unsuccessful, use lemon juice and salt.
If the stain persists use bleach.

Egg and blood

These are animal stains.

They contain albumen and are set by hot water. Therefore, soak in cold water and wash with soap. If unsuccessful, steep in cold water and salt.

Paint and tar

If the stain is fresh, rub it gently with a softened pad moistened with ammonia and paraffin. Remove all traces of grease and wash the article thoroughly with hot water and soap.

Grass

This is a vegetable stain.

Apply methylated sprits, rubbing the stain gently with a pad of soft cotton.

Ball point ink

Sponge with methylated spirits. If the stain is stubborn, use ammonia.

Chewing gum

Rub with ice-cube to set the chewing gum so it may be removed.

LAUNDERING A SHIRT AND A BLOUSE MADE FROM COTTON

Do the following when laundering a shirt and a blouse:

Check for torn parts such as holes and split seams and mend accordingly
Pre-soak the shirt or blouse in cold water
Wash thoroughly in warm soapy water, particularly, around the neckline and armholes
Rinse thoroughly in warm and then in cold water
Hang out to dry
Press if necessary then air and store

UNIT 16 TECHNOLOGIES FOR DOMESTIC USE

TECHNOLOGIES FOR DOMESTIC USE

The technologies for domestic use are those that are used in the home.

These technologies include the following:

A crotchet
Sewing needles
Mphero
Wooden spoons
A winnower
A hoe
and a mortal

A flour sieve
An axe
Knitting needles
A charcoal stove
A clay pot
A pestle

MAKING TECHNOLOGIES FOR DOMESTIC USE
Learners can make different types of technologies that can be used for domestic use. Making such technologies involves a number of steps.
These are:

Identifying the problem

The first step is to identify the problem to be solved.

Doing research

The second step is to find out as much information as possible about the problem. This may involve research, for example, by asking other people or reading about the problem.

Planning

The third step is to plan how you will solve the problem. This step involves brainstorming, considering different solutions and choosing an idea or solution that can be tried.

Outlining the technological processes

When a solution has been decided upon, you need to outline the process to be followed when designing the technology.
This would involve thinking about:

what exactly the technological device is expected to do
what materials are needed to make the device
the costs involved
the size and shape of the device
who will use my device
what the production process will involve
safety, health or environmental considerations

Making the technological device

This step involve getting the necessary tools and other material to make the technological device

Testing the technological device

Once the technological device has been made, it should be tested to see if it works according to expectations. If not, the whole process should be reviewed to identify and rectify any problem.

Evaluating the technological process

Evaluation should take place at each step of the technological process in order to assess how the production is progressing.

UNIT 17 PROPERTY OF LIGHT, HEAT AND SOUND

PROPERTY OF LIGHT
Light has several properties.

The list below shows some of the properties of light:

light travels in a straight line
light has speed
light can be reflected
light can be refracted
light rays form shadows when blocked
light rays can be converged or diverged
light that is white consists of different colours

LIGHT TRAVELS IN A STRAIGHT LINE
This property of light can be proved through experiments. The action of a pinhole camera and three identical rectangular cards with tiny holes at their centres arranged in a straight line proves that light travels in a straight line.
The following diagram shows what happens when light enters a pinhole camera and when light is shone on one rectangular card that is aligned with other two cards.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Light can travel through a vacuum and some media that are transparent. Light is reflected (bounced off) by certain media. Mirrors are good examples of objects that reflect light. Reflection of light from smooth surfaces is done in a special way. A ray that is incident on a mirror surface is reflected following the laws of reflection.

The diagram that follows shows reflection based on the law that states that the angle of incidence (angle between the incidence ray and normal) is equal to the angle of reflection (which is the angle between the normal and the reflected ray). The light that strikes the mirror surface at 900 is reflected along the same path.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the sudden change of direction of light as it travels from one medium to another of different optical density. When an incident ray goes from a less dense medium like air to a denser medium like a glass block, the refracted ray is always refracted towards the normal. As the refracted ray travels from the glass to air, once again, it is refracted away from the normal.

The diagram that follows shows light travelling from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, and then to a less dense medium, once again.

TECHNOLOGIES THAT USE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Technologies	Property of light	Uses
Microscope	Refraction	To magnify objects
Periscope	Reflection	To see things above the observer or over an obstacle
Mirror glass	Reflection	To see an image of oneself
Telescope	Refraction	To make distant objects to look bigger
Car mirror	Reflection	To see what is behind vehicles
Reflector	Reflection	To make something visible
Projector	Reflection and refraction	To project images on a screen
Pair of binoculars	Refraction	To see distance objects clearly

PROPERTIES OF HEAT
Heat energy can be absorbed or lost by a substance. The heat energy lost by one substance is transferred to another substance even if there is no contact between them. Heat travels through various substances at different speeds.
The speed of heat in a substance may depend upon the nature of the substance and closeness of the particles in the substance.

As heat flows through substances it can:

cause expansion of matter
cause changes of state of matter
be transferred through a medium
make things move

TECHNOLOGIES BASED ON THE HEAT
Substances normally expand as heat passes through them. Thermometers are constructed based on the expansion and contraction of the liquid that is used. Some joints are made based on the principle of expansion and contraction.
There are technologies that have been made to cool a device so that it contracts for it to fit into the hole of another device. On expansion, the material firmly fits into the hole thereby making an extremely strong joint.
Such joints exist in bicycles, cars and other heavy machinery. Automatic switches (thermostats) in electric pressing irons and geysers work on the principle of expansion and contraction.
Vacuum flasks have been designed to employ some of the properties of heat. The vacuum flasks have a glass that has the inner part and its outer surface silvered.
The silvered surface radiates (emits) very little amount of heat and absorbs very little heat from its outer surface since polished (shiny) surfaces are bad radiators or emitters of heat.

The diagram below shows a vacuum flask.
A vacuum flask

Thermometers, cooling systems in cars and industries, electric pressing irons and geysers are some of the technologies that use properties of heat.

PROPERTIES OF SOUND
Sound is produced by anything that is vibrating. Just like heat, sound can be absorbed, transmitted through substances, reflected and refracted.
An echo is a good example of reflected sound. Sound travels at different speeds in different materials.
Sound requires a medium for its transfer. Sound spreads out in all directions from the source of production.

TECHNOLOGIES THAT USE THE PROPERTIES OF SOUND
There are a number of technologies that use properties of sound.

These include musical instruments such as a xylophone, mabatcha/badza, guitar, drum, flute, piano, trombone and trumpet.

UNIT 18 FORCES

TYPES OF FORCES

a pull

a push

A force can be a pull or a push that can change the state of rest of an object. The diagram that follows shows the illustrations of a pull and a push.

Different bodies can exert a pull or a push on objects. The earth exerts a force of attraction on objects. The force the earth exerts on objects is called the force of gravity or the gravitational force.
Gravity is defined as the pull of the earth. When one object moves or tries to slide over another object, a force to oppose the motion arises.
The force that is produced as a result of sliding or rubbing two bodies together is known as the frictional force or friction.
One can also produce an electrostatic force. This type of force can be produced by rubbing the plastic case of a ball point against the hair or fur. When the case is brought close to small pieces of paper it attracts them.
This happens because of the force of attraction that exists between the pen and the pieces of paper. This attractive force is called an electrostatic force.
The diagram that follows shows a ball point case picking small pieces of paper.

Magnets also exert forces on each other as well as on materials that are magnetic. The force which a magnet exerts is called magnetic force.
The magnets will attract each other if unlike poles of the magnets face each other. Otherwise, a force of repulsion will exist when like poles of magnets face each other.

The following diagrams show attractive and repulsive forces between unlike and like poles of magnets.
lines of force around a magnet

A stretched elastic band possesses strain energy. The band can exert a force on other objects. The force that the elastic band exerts is called an elastic force. The forces that have been discussed so far are just a few examples of the many different types of forces that exist.

USES OF FORCES

forces can change the shape of objects
forces can make objects at rest start moving
forces can make objects move faster or slower
forces can make things spin round
forces can change the direction of moving objects
forces can stop moving objects
forces can produce heat

TECHNOLOGIES THAT USE THE PRINCIPLES OF FORCE

Sewing machines
Cars
Bicycles
Aeroplanes
Musical instruments
Electric fans

Boats
Traps
Bows and arrows
Balances
Mortars and pestles
Catapults

UNIT 19 NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES

Nutritional deficiency diseases are due to lack or shortage of a particular nutrient in the diet.

When the body cannot cope with the little amounts supplied, specific signs and symptoms appear. Various nutritional deficiency diseases show different signs and symptoms.
Some of the deficiency diseases which affect people especially children are night blindness, scurvy, rickets, anaemia and goiter. These deficiency diseases can be prevented and treated.

NIGHT BLINDNESS
Night blindness is caused by lack of vitamin A in the diet. This deficiency disease is characterized by inability to see in dim light, dry and rough skin, and skin infections.

SCURVY
Scurvy is caused by lack of vitamin C in the diet and it is characterized by bleeding of gums, slow healing wounds, slow growth in children and loose teeth.

The illustration below shows a person with scurvy
ANAEMIA
Anaemia is caused by lack of iron in the diet and it is characterized by tiredness, pale hands, pale mouth, pale skin, pale mucus membranes and pale eyes and heart palpitations

GOITRE
Goitre is caused by lack of iodine in the diet. It is characterized by slow growth in children and an enlarged gland at the front of the neck.

The illustration below shows a person with goitre

RICKETS
Rickets are caused by lack of vitamin D in the diet and are characterized by soft bones. The teeth are also affected.
Due to the weight of the body, the soft bones of the legs bend outwards. Rickets mostly occur in children.

The illustration below shows a child with rickets

PREVENTIVE MEASURES AND TREATMENT OF DEFICIENCY
Nutritional deficiency diseases can be prevented by ensuring that the nutritional needs of various members of the family, especially children, are met through a proper diet. As such, families are to eat a variety of foods in the right amounts. Once affected by this nutritional deficiency diseases they can be treated the first step in treating deficiency diseases is diagnosis. There after the treated can be corrected supplying the missing nutrients in the diet. Nutrients supplements are used where the condition is severe.
Preventive measures and treatment of deficiency disease

Deficiency disease	Preventive measures sources	Treatment	Suitable foods
Night blindness	Eating a variety of foods (balanced diet) including foods rich in vitamin A	Provision of foods rich in vitamin A	Yellow sweet potatoes, carrots, milk, oily fish, cheese, eggs, liver, oils, dark green vegetables and fruits
Scurvy	Eating a variety of foods (balanced diet) including foods rich in vitamin C	Provision of foods rich in vitamin C	Citrus fruits, potatoes, dark green vegetables
Anaemia	Eating a variety of foods (balanced diet) including foods rich in vitamin C	Provision of foods rich in iron and vitamin C Use of iron tablets or folic acid	Meat, liver, kidney , peas, beans, dark green vegetables
Goitre	Eating a variety of foods (balanced diet) including foods rich in iodine	Provision of foods rich in iodine Use of iodised salt in foods	Iodised salt, sea foods, sea fish and shell fish
Rickets	Eating a variety of foods (balanced diet) including foods rich in vitamin D	Provision of foods rich in vitamin D	Sunshine, oily fish, margarine, butter, eggs, milk, cheese

UNIT 20 DYEING MATERIALS

DYEING FABRICS AND OTHER MATERIALS

The process of dyeing fabrics and other materials can be done in different ways depending on the type of dye to be used.
Dyes come in different names such as dylon, dryad and reeves. These are suitable for dyeing natural fibres and good for commercial purposes.
These can be bought from shops. Dyes can also be made locally. These include boiled concentrated solution of tea leaves, inks, maroon coloured leaves of maize, onion skins, red cabbage, mushrooms, carrot tops, spinach and roots of some trees, for example n`joka in Yao.
It is essential to know the reaction of different types of dyes to fabrics and other materials. Different fabrics and other materials absorb dyes differently.
Fabrics made from natural fibres, for example, cotton, linen, and woollen materials dye more readily than fabrics made from artificial fibres, for example, nylon and terelyne.
Materials made from natural fibres give best results for dyeing because they readily absorb dyes.

Cotton fabrics and garments are the best for dyeing purposes. Cotton fabrics can easily be identified by burning a piece of fabric. Cotton fabrics will burn like wood, producing ash.
If the fabric shrinks, it is not cotton.

Other ways of identifying fabrics and other materials that are good for dyeing include:

Dipping a piece of material in a dye solution and observing for 5 to 10 minutes. If the fabric gives a deeper shade, it is good for dyeing. If it is pale, it is not good for dyeing
Putting drops of water on a piece of material. If the material readily absorbs water, then it is good for dyeing.

PREPARATION OF FABRICS AND OTHER MATERIALS FOR DYEING

The process of dyeing materials

Wash the material and remove dirt and soften it
Decide and prepare the design you want your material to be.

Here are examples of illustrations of pieces of fabric that have been prepared for dyeing and how the fabric looks like after dyeing.

USING ARTIFICIAL DYES

Dilute 40g of dylon in 1 litre of hot water
Stir well until the dye is dissolved
Add 1 tablespoon of kitchen salt to the solution and 1 packet dylon cold fix (about 50g) or soda
Stir well until the salt and dylon cold fix or soda are dissolved.
Add enough water just to cover the material
Immerse the material in the solution for 1 hour, keep on turning the material for the first 10 minutes. This allows the dye to penetrate deeper into the material.
Rinse thoroughly in cold water.

Note

1 tin (about 40g) of dylon is enough for a 250g piece of fabric. Therefore, use only what is needed.
Salt, dylon cold fix or soda are added to fix the colour

USING NATURE DYES

Allow some coloured sheaths of maize cob or tea leaves or roots to boil for about 10 minutes
Immerse the material into the boiling solution
Keep on stirring at intervals for 30 minutes
Add at least a tablespoon full of salt
Stir until the salt dissolves
Allow the contents to cool down.
Rinse the material thoroughly in cold water

Note
The water should be just enough to cover the fabric to the dyed. Sometimes chemicals are added to the natural dyes to facilitate the absorption of the dyes.

UNIT 21 MACHINES

MACHINES THAT USE OF PRINCIPLES OF LEVERS
Levers have a number of functions.

The following table shows some of the machines that use the principle of levers and their functions.

Lever	Function
Wheelbarrow	Carrying loads
Battle opener	Opening bottles
Balance	Weighing masses
Pliers, spinners	Tightening bolts or unscrewing bolts
Jack	Lifting heavy bodies
Pair of scissors	Cutting things
Knife	Cutting things
Crowbar	Lifting things
Nail cutter	Cutting fingernails
Pair of tongs, tweezers	For holding small objects, hot objects or dangerous materials
Bicycle brakes	For stopping a bicycle
Bole holes	For drawing underground water

PULLEY SYSTEMS

Pulley are used to:

change direction of a force
reduce the force needed to raise a given load

Pulley systems can be found in garages, curtain rails, bicycles, cranes, elevators and toys.

UNIT 22 GROWING UP

PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL CHANGES IN ADOLESCENTS

Girls and boys may reach adolescence stage between the ages of 11 and 15.

Adolescence is the period when boys and girls are changing from childhood to adulthood. There are several changes which boys and girls undergo during this stage.
These include physical, emotional, mental and social changes.

The following table shows physical and emotional changes that boys and girls undergo as they grow up.
Changes in boys

Physical changes

Emotional changes

Grow taller and heavier. Their hands and shoulders become bigger and stronger.
The skin becomes oily and the face develops pimples
Grow hairs in the armpits, around the genitals and on the face
Produce sperm
Develop deep voice
Experience wet dreams

Begin to develop sexual feelings and start getting excited when they see a girl
Interest in girls increases and start taking extra care on how they look
Develop more self confidence and do not like to be forced to do things they do not want to do
Experience frequent changes in their mood
Become more sensitive to failure
Become more sensitive to remarks from

adults and peers about the changes they are going through.

Changes in girls

Physical changes

Emotional changes

Grow faster, their hips get wider and their breasts start to grow bigger.
The skin becomes oily and the face develops pimples
Hair grows in the armpits and around genitals
Experience menstrual period
Their voice becomes softer

Begin to develop sexual feelings and get excited when they see a boy
Interest in boys increases and they start taking extra care about how they look
Develop more self confidence and do not like to be forced to do things they do not want to do. They want to be treated like adults
Become more sensitive to remarks from adults and peers about the changes they are going through
Experience frequent changes in their mood
Become increasingly sensitive to failure

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
At puberty, girls will start producing egg cells. An egg is produced every month by one or both ovaries. This is called ovulation. Ovulation has a reproductive function. When the egg cell is fertilized, the results is pregnancy.

When ovulation is happening, the wall of the uterus becomes thick as it prepares to receive an embryo after fertilization. When the egg is not fertilized, it dies. The wall of the uterus then breaks down leading to a discharge of bloody material. This discharge of bloody material is called menstruation. Menstruation happens every month, hence it is called menstrual cycle.

Menstruation lasts about 7 days. Menstruation is a normal thing for girls. It may start at the age of 11 in some girls is as late as the age of 18 in others. A women menstruates up to the age of 45 to 50.

During menstruation, girls need to take extra care of themselves. They can do this by:

taking a bath regularly
changing absorbent materials such as cotton wool regularly
using clean and dry sanitary towels
washing hands after handling sanitary towels
wearing clean clothes

EFFECTS OF PREMARITAL SEX

Unplanned pregnancies
Contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted infections
Early marriages
Poor performance at school
Dropping out of school

Typed by Zikomo Masese Banda and Shadrach Bowa Chabwera (Brother-in-law) Edited by Zikomo Masese Banda

REFERENCES

MIE (2008), Science and Technology Teacher’s Guide for Standard 7, Domasi; MIE. Internet

Situation	Effects on the youth
Adolescence	Youth indulge themselves in immoral behaviours leading to contraction of STIs including HIV and AIDS.
Sexual relationship	Unwanted pregnancies Abortion Drop out of school Contraction of STIs including HLV and AIDS
Negative peer pressure	Leading to drug and substance abuse Crime Suicide Contraction of STIs including HIV and AIDS Unwanted pregnancies
Culture practice	Forced marriages Early marriages Contraction of STIs including HIV and AIDS.

Physical changes	Psychological changes
Grow faster. The hips get wider and the breasts start to grow The skin becomes oily and pimples develop on the face Hair grows around vagina and the armpits	They develop sexual feelings and start getting excited on seeing a boy Interest in boys increases and start to taking extra care on how they look

AGRICULTURE

UNIT 2 MARKETING FUNCTIONS

UNIT 3 WATER CYCLE

UNIT 5 WATER CONSERVATION

UNIT 7 SOIL STRUCTURE

UNIT 8 SOIL PROFILE

UNIT 10 FARM MACHINERY AND THEIR USES

UNIT 11 SAFETY MEASURES WHEN USING FARM MACHINERY

UNIT 12 MAINTENANCE OF FARM MACHINERY

UNIT 13 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF FLOWERS

UNIT 14 FLOWER NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT

UNIT 15 SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION FOR FLOWER PRODUCTION

UNIT 16 TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS.

UNIT 18 WEED CONTROL IN FLOWERS

UNIT 19 TENDING FLOWERS

UNIT 20 PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL IN FLOWERS

UNIT 21 HARVESTING FLOWERS

UNIT 22 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES

UNIT 24 SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION FOR GROWING LEAF VEGETABLES

UNIT 25 TRANSPLANTING LEAF VEGETABLES

UNIT 26 FIELD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR LEAF VEGETABLES

UNIT 27 IMPORTANCE OF RABBITS

UNIT 30 IMPORTANCE AND SYSTEMS OF AGROFORESTRY

REFERENCE

BIBLE KNOWLEDGE

UNIT 2 TEACHING IN PARABLES

UNIT 3 USE OF PARABLES

UNIT 4 DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

UNIT 5 CHRISTIAN GROWTH

UNIT 6 RESPONSIBILITIES FOR VULNERABLE GROUPS

UNIT 7 KINGS OF ISRAEL

UNIT 8 COMMUNICATING WITH GOD

UNIT 9 CHURCH AND POLITICS

REFERENCES

ENGLISH

EXPRESSIVE ARTS

PERSONAL AND GENERAL SPACE

Components of General Space

IMPORTANCE OF GENERAL AND PERSONAL SPACE

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE GENERAL AND PERSONAL SPACE

Artistic Activities within Personal and General Space

ACTIVITIES THAT REQUIRE PERSONAL SPACE

ACTIVITIES THAT REQUIRE GENERAL SPACE

HOW PERSONAL SPACE CAN BE CREATED

OCCASIONS WHEN THE SOCIETY DOES NOT FOLLOW RULES OF PERSONAL SPACE

BODY MOVEMENTS

Body Movements in Response to Rhythms

TIME SIGNATURES

STAFF NOTATION

A DOTTED NOTE

BEAMING NOTES

MUSICAL TERMS

MIRRORING

SOME MIRRORING GAMES

MIRRORING AEROBICS

Types of Aerobics

CONVEYING CULTURAL MESSAGES Garments Conveying Cultural Messages

Sounds Used to Convey Messages

Posture and Body Movements

Cultural Dances

IMPORTANCE OF TRADITIONAL DANCES AND SONGS

SOME TRADITIONAL DANCES PERFORMED IN THE REGIONS OF MALAWI

Attire for Artistic performance

DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION

Examples of Foreign Musical Instruments

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING A BANJO

Garments and Artistic Items Based on Modern Styles

IMPORTANCE OF MAKING YOUR OWN GARMENTS

Factors to Consider in Garment Construction

Advantages of Taking Body Measurements

PAPER PATTERNS

Pattern Markings

Pattern Markings and Their Meanings

LAYING PATTERN PIECES ON THE FABRIC AND PINNING

CUTTING OUT

MAKING A SPORTS SHORTS

Layout

Macrame

Two Basic Knots in Macrame

Produce from Macrame